Back to Basics

Richard Benyo, author of Timeless Running Wisdom, will present “XI Commandments of Marathoning” on Friday, Feb. 24th at 12:00 PM (Central Standard Time)

In the days of the First Running Boom, newbies were eager to learn the Rules of the Road when it came to running and especially marathoning. There was no Internet in those days, so new runners learned at the smelly feet of veteran runners. Where to line up at the start of a race; how much mileage per week is most effective; what to eat the night before a big race, etc. Today runners are so overloaded with information in all phases of their existence, that it is difficult to separate the wheat from the chaff when it comes to running and racing. In this presentation we will review 11 blind alleys down which no marathoner should run. Primarily keyed to new marathoners.

Title: XI Commandments of Marathoning

Date: Friday, February 24, 2012

Time: 12:00 PM – 1:00 PM CST

Space is limited.
Reserve your Webinar seat now at:
https://www1.gotomeeting.com/register/444203976

About the Presenter

Richard Benyo is the editor of Marathon Beyond magazine and is the author of Timeless Running Wisdom. He was editor of Runner’s World between 1977 and 1984. He has written two dozen books, many of them in the areas of fitness, health, and running. He is chairman of the board of the Napa Valley Marathon and along with his running partner, Tom Crawford, was the first runner to run from Badwater in Death Valley (lowest point in the Western Hemisphere and hottest place on Earth) to the peak of Mt. Whitney (at 14,494’ the highest peak in the Lower 48) and back, in the middle of summer; the course is nearly 300 miles, and both ends of it are located in the same county (Inyo) in California. Benyo has recently had three books published on the topic of growing up in the Coal Region of central-eastern region of Pennsylvania.

Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/register-for-xi-commandments-of-marathoning-webinar

In Strap Taping iPad Version with Video, Anne Keil, PT, DPT, presents taping techniques for use on all body areas in both physical therapy and modified athletic training. This easy-to-use reference contains 50 strap taping techniques with Leukotape that help support or control joint mobility and provide greater stability than other methods of taping.

Following are the areas covered:

Chapter 1. Introduction to Taping
Chapter 2. Ankle and Foot
Chapter 3. The Knee
Chapter 4. The Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbopelvic Area
Chapter 5. The Shoulder
Chapter 6. The Elbow, Wrist, and Hand

Each taping technique is shown step by step in video clips, as well as 70 photos and illustrations. Readers will experience a dynamic and detailed presentation for learning strap taping techniques and referencing them quickly through the convenience of their iPad.

Strap Taping, iPad Version with Video, is an excellent resource for both students and professionals in physical therapy, occupational therapy, and athletic training seeking guidance in the proper selection and effective application of strap taping techniques. With full-color photos and video sequences, Strap Taping, iPad Version with Video, offers readers a dynamic way to learn and review a range of taping techniques used in treating sport and orthopedic injuries.

Read more about Strap Taping, iPad Version with Video.

About the Author
Anne Keil, PT, DPT, is a physical therapist and supervisor of rehabilitation services at the University of Colorado Hospital at Stapleton and Park Meadows Rehabilitation Clinics in Denver. Dr. Keil has worked in a variety of areas, including outpatient orthopedics, neurology, inpatient, skilled nursing, rehabilitation, and home health care. Working in facilities or countries that did not have many physical therapy resources, Dr. Keil became interested in taping as a low-cost adjunct to treatment and an effective alternative to bracing.

Dr. Keil received her doctorate in physical therapy in 2005 from Simmons College in Boston, Massachusetts. She earned her BS in physical therapy in 1991 and BS in community health science in 1989 from California State University at Fresno. Dr. Keil is a member of the American Physical Therapy Association (APTA).

Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/strap-taping-introduces-dynamic-techniques-with-your-ipad-

NSCA’s Guide to Program Design offers the most current information, guidance, and protocols from respected scientists and practitioners with expertise in strength and conditioning program design. This text offers strength and conditioning professionals a scientific basis for developing training programs for specific athletes at specific times of year. Straightforward and accessible, NSCA’s Guide to Program Design presents a detailed examination of considerations and challenges in developing a program for each key fitness component and fitness performance goal. Editor Jay Hoffman and his team of contributors have assembled an exceptional reference for practicing professionals and a valuable educational resource for new professionals and students preparing for certification.

NSCA’s Guide to Tests and Assessments offers strength and conditioning professionals a one-stop resource for the best research-supported fitness and performance measures available. This comprehensive text offers extensive information on which factors matter and how to evaluate them as accurately and easily as possible. Editor Todd Miller and an authoritative team of contributors have compiled an exceptional reference and valuable tool for practicing professionals and an indispensable educational resource for students. NSCA’s Guide to Tests and Assessments presents the latest research from respected scientists and practitioners in exercise testing and assessment. The text begins with an introduction to testing, data analysis, and formulating conclusions. It then features a by-chapter presentation of tests and assessments for body composition, heart rate and blood pressure, metabolic rate, aerobic power, lactate threshold, muscular strength, muscular endurance, power, speed and agility, mobility, and balance and stability. Using descriptions of multiple test options for each key fitness component, readers will learn to choose from a range of alternatives to meet the needs of their athletes, reach training objectives, choose from available equipment, and work within budgets.

Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/convert-scientific-research-into-practical-application

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Baseball gets serious fast enough. As coaches, we need to recognize this and do our best not to put too much pressure on young, developing baseball players. These days it’s not uncommon to see 8-, 9-, and 10-year-old kids playing 40 or more baseball games in a summer for their local travel teams. In some ways this is great. Youth players today have opportunities to play baseball that we never had. If the kids wake up every day and all they talk about is that day’s game or practice—if they’re truly excited to get out on the baseball field that often without being pushed—then, by all means, let them have at it.

The truth of the matter, however, is that for most kids that’s too much baseball. When kids get to be 11 or 12 years old, they begin forming their own likes and dislikes. Kids at this age start making their own decisions on what they want to do. If they don’t want to play that many games, they won’t; it’s as simple as that. Younger children are not so independent in their thinking, however. Most of them still want to do what makes mom or dad happy. So, the danger is that there will be kids who really do enjoy the game of baseball on a recreational level and will keep going out there to play on a travel team every day because it’s what their parents want. At some point, usually when they turn 11 or 12, these kids will get sick of the sport and look for other ways to spend their recreational time. This is dangerous for the future of baseball.

You also have the other extreme, which is just as dangerous. Many kids enjoy baseball or are at least curious about the sport. They want to be part of a team and to learn and enjoy the game in a structured environment. We call these kids recreational or in-house players. However, if you look at these kids as the seeds representing the future of the game, it’s very important to nurture them properly, just as you would water the grass seed in your front yard or the seeds for the flowers you’ve planted in your garden.

Children don’t mature at the same rate physically. Plus their interest levels and attention spans vary considerably from age group to age group. If a player is interested in baseball at a very young age but is not as physically prepared to play as some of his or her peers, that player’s interests and needs must be considered. If that player has a positive experience, he or she is likely to stick with the sport. At some point he or she is going to mature and might turn into a heck of a ballplayer. If he or she is neglected or has an otherwise negative experience early on, the sport of baseball loses out on a potential superstar or, at the very least, a potential lifelong fan. Neither of these outcomes is good for the game.

Similarly, if a player is only moderately interested in the sport, it’s important that his or her interest be cultivated and maintained. There are a lot of activities competing for the attention of the young people in this country. If I’m an active 10-year-old and can play basketball, baseball, football, or soccer, I’m probably going to give them all a try to find out which ones I like. Initial experiences and impressions significantly influence how a child feels about something. If football practice is more exciting than baseball practice, I’m probably going to make sure I make it to football practice every time. I’ll go to baseball practice when I feel like it or if it fits into my schedule.

With all this in mind, it’s easy to see that youth baseball coaches—most of them volunteers trying to balance their own work and family lives with coaching—play an enormous role in shaping a child’s on-field experience. Almost all male adults played baseball at some point in their lives. It’s one game that everyone seems to think they know something about. So, when our kids decide to play T-ball or baseball, we feel confident that we can get out there for a few hours a week and make a positive impact by coaching their teams.

Unfortunately, it’s not that simple. Baseball is a game that lends itself to some standing around. A lot of the strategy and thinking involved in baseball takes place in between the actual game action. As we get older, the strategic part of the game becomes very appealing to us.

Younger kids are not built that way, however. Attention spans are short at the younger ages, and energy levels are high. If these factors aren’t considered by the youth baseball or T-ball coach, their players’ earliest experiences can be negative.

So, as you can see, there’s a fine line to walk as a youth baseball coach. Again, think of the kids as seeds that need to be nurtured. Every seed is a little bit different and needs its own personal attention. You’re not going to treat grass seed the same way you treat a pumpkin seed or a geranium seed. If you treat them all the same way, some will grow and others will die. Likewise, if you try to handle every kid at every age the same way, you’re going to kill some of the kids’ interest along the way, and participation will decrease.

Motor skill development is age-specific. Sure, you’re going to find some advanced 5-year-olds who can catch thrown and hit balls pretty regularly. But, for most kids that age, catching is one of the hardest skills to develop. As coaches, we need to be able to cater to the needs of the kid who can’t catch one ball and still make baseball fun and exciting for the kid who can. It’s a difficult balance but one that’s important to understand at all age levels.

This is an excerpt from Coaching Youth Baseball the Ripken Way.

Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/coaches-play-important-role-in-developing-athletes

If you look at the information presented in most exercise physiology and sports nutrition books, you will notice an obvious omission of discussions of muscle cramps. This is probably because little is known about muscle cramps. Nonetheless, I am a true believer that imbalances of fluid or the mineral electrolytes—sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium—in the diet should be ruled out as contributors to all nocturnal and exercise-associated cramps.

Fluid Imbalances and Dehydration

Whether fluid imbalances and mild dehydration can trigger muscle cramping is open to debate. Although we know that muscle cramps can and do occur with severe dehydration and heat injury, there is no conclusive evidence that consuming adequate fluid with or without electrolytes will prevent typical nocturnal or exercise-associated cramping. In fact, studies have found that runners, cyclists, and triathletes who develop cramps during an endurance event are no more likely to be dehydrated or to have lost greater amounts of bodily water than are those who do not develop cramps during the same race. In my practice, however, I have noted anecdotally that maintaining a proper fluid balance indeed helps many endurance and team athletes avoid cramps, particularly those that occur after exercise or when sleeping at night. In one case, I worked with a male tennis player from Switzerland who had a history of severe cramping and fatigue after practice that was relieved by a regular and diligent fluid-consumption schedule. In her book, well-known sport nutritionist Nancy Clark tells an amusing story about a runner who eliminated his painful muscle cramps by following the simple postexercise advice to first drink water for fluid replacement and then have a beer for social fun.

Sodium

Sodium is one of the main positively charged mineral ions or electrolytes in body fluid. The body needs it to help maintain normal body-fluid balance and blood pressure, and in conjunction with several other electrolytes, it is critical for nerve impulse generation and muscle contraction. Sodium is distributed widely in nature but is found in rather small amounts in most unprocessed foods. In most developed countries, however, a significant amount of sodium is added from the salt shaker (1 teaspoon [6 g] contains 2,325 milligrams of sodium) or by food manufacturers in processing (as listed on the food label). Because sodium intake can vary, the typical Western diet contains 10 to 12 grams of salt (3.9 to 4.7 g of sodium) per day.

Because sodium plays an important role in regulating blood pressure and fluid and electrolyte balance, the body has an effective mechanism to help regulate the levels of sodium in the blood on a variety of sodium intakes. If the sodium concentration in the blood starts to drop, a series of complex events leads to the secretion of a hormone called aldosterone, which signals the kidneys to retain sodium. If sodium levels are too high, aldosterone secretion is inhibited, which allows the kidneys to eliminate some sodium through urination. Another hormone, called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also helps maintain normal sodium levels in body fluids by signaling the kidney to retain water and sodium. Typically, levels of both aldosterone and ADH increase during exercise, which helps conserve the body’s water and sodium stores.

Actual sodium-deficient states caused by inadequate dietary sodium are not common because the body’s regulatory mechanisms are typically very effective. Humans even have a natural appetite for salt, which helps assure that they take in enough sodium to maintain sodium balance. Indeed, I have great memories of eating salty tortilla chips wet with a little water—so more salt would stick—after long cycling races in Arizona. Thankfully, these sodium-conserving mechanisms are activated in athletes who lose excessive sodium and other electrolytes during prolonged sweating.

Although muscle cramps are reported to occur during the sodium-deficient state, some researchers believe that alterations in sodium balance are not involved in exercise-associated cramps. This is despite the fact that significantly lower postexercise serum sodium concentrations have been found in endurance athletes who experienced cramps during a race compared to those who did not develop cramps. One of the reasons this is downplayed may be because serum sodium concentrations remain within the normal range, despite being significantly lower in the athletes with muscle cramps.

Nevertheless, it is important for athletes to consume enough sodium to replace what is lost through sweat. Despite the regulatory mechanisms discussed earlier, it is possible for vegetarian athletes to be at risk for muscle cramps and other problems because of low sodium intake. The reason is most likely because they ignore their salt craving cues—eating mostly unprocessed and unsalted foods—while continuing to lose considerable salt through sweating. The recommendation set by the USDA’s Dietary Guidelines for Americans to keep sodium intake to 2.3 grams or less per day is not appropriate for most athletes because of their higher sodium losses. Thus, while it is not likely that low sodium intake is the cause of cramps in most athletes, it is certainly possible that a vegetarian athlete prudently following a low-sodium diet for health reasons might experience muscle cramps that would be relieved with more liberal use of the salt shaker.

Potassium

Potassium is the major electrolyte found inside all body cells, including muscle and nerve cells. It works in close association with sodium and chloride in the generation of electrical impulses in the nerves and the muscles, including the heart muscle. Potassium is found in most foods, but is especially abundant in fresh vegetables, potatoes, certain fruits (melon, bananas, berries, citrus fruit), milk, meat, and fish.

Potassium balance, like sodium balance, is regulated by the hormone aldosterone. A high serum potassium level stimulates the release of the hormone aldosterone, which leads to increased potassium excretion by the kidneys into the urine. A decrease in serum potassium concentration elicits a drop in aldosterone secretion and hence less potassium loss in the urine. As with sodium and calcium, potassium is typically precisely regulated, and deficiencies or excessive accumulation are rare. Potassium deficiencies, however, can occur with conditions such as fasting, diarrhea, and regular diuretic use. In such cases, low blood–potassium concentrations, called hypokalemia, can lead to muscle cramps and weakness, and even cardiac arrest caused by impairment in the generation of nerve impulses. Similarly, high blood–potassium concentrations, or hyperkalemia, are also not common but can occur in people who take potassium supplements far exceeding the recommended daily allowance. High blood–potassium concentrations can also disturb electrical impulses and induce cardiac arrhythmia.

Even though little evidence is available to support a link between potassium intake and muscle cramps, it is quite interesting that most athletes—and non-athletes alike—think that the banana is the first line of defense in preventing muscle cramps. If only it were that simple. Furthermore, athletes following vegetarian diets are not likely to experience muscle cramping as a result of low potassium intake because the vegetarian diet provides an abundance of potassium. An athlete who is recovering from an intestinal illness, restricting calories, or taking diuretics or laxatives should, nevertheless, make an effort to consume potassium-rich foods, particularly if he or she is experiencing muscle cramping. Because of the dangers of hyperkalemia, potassium supplements are not recommended unless closely monitored by a physician. The recommended daily intake for potassium is 4,700 milligrams per day for adults.

Calcium

As discussed in chapter 6, the vast majority of calcium found in the body is found in the skeleton where it lends strength to bone. Calcium, however, is involved in muscle contractions, including that of the heart, skeletal muscles, and smooth muscle found in blood vessels and intestines, as well as the generation of nerve impulses. Blood calcium is tightly controlled and regulated by several hormones, including parathyroid hormone and vitamin D.

Although impaired muscle contraction and muscle cramps are commonly listed as symptoms of calcium deficiency, many exercise scientists feel that low calcium intake is not likely to play a role in most muscle cramps. This is because if dietary calcium intake were low, calcium would be released from the bones to maintain blood concentrations and theoretically provide what would be needed for muscle contraction. This thinking, however, does not completely rule out the possibility that muscle cramping could be caused by a temporary imbalance of calcium in the muscle during exercise. Certainly, we know that people with inborn errors in calcium metabolism in skeletal muscle (which will be discussed later) are prone to muscle cramping.

Despite so little being known about low calcium intake and muscle cramps, calcium is one of the nutritional factors people most associate with relieving cramps, second only to the potassium-rich banana. Although to my knowledge studies have not assessed whether dietary or supplemental calcium affects exercise cramps in athletes, a recent report found that calcium supplementation was not effective in treating leg cramps associated with pregnancy. On the other hand, anecdotal reports from athletes are common. Nancy Clark tells of a hiker who resolved muscle cramps by taking calcium-rich Tums and of a ballet dancer whose cramping disappeared after adding milk and yogurt to her diet. Because calcium intake can be low in the diet of some vegans and vegetarians, inadequate calcium should also be ruled out in vegetarians experiencing muscle cramps.

Magnesium

In addition to its role in bone health, magnesium plays an important role in stabilizing adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy source for muscle contraction, and also serves as an electrolyte in body fluids. Muscle weakness, muscle twitching, and muscle cramps are common symptoms of magnesium deficiency.

Limited data have suggested that magnesium status is indirectly related to the incidence of muscle cramps. In these studies of endurance athletes, the athletes who developed muscle cramps were found to have serum magnesium concentrations that were different from their competitors who did not cramp. The research, however, presents a confusing story because serum magnesium was significantly lower in cyclists who cramped during a 100-mile (160 km) bike ride and significantly higher in runners who cramped during an ultradistance race. In both studies, serum magnesium remained within the normal range but was low-normal in the cyclists who cramped and high-normal in the runners. Interestingly, studies in pregnant women have found that supplementation with magnesium (taken as magnesium lactate or magnesium citrate in doses of 5 millimoles in the morning and 10 millimoles in the evening ) show promise for treating pregnancy-associated leg cramps. Research, however, has not addressed whether dietary or supplemental magnesium can prevent or reduce muscle cramps in athletes.

Vegetarian athletes are not likely to experience muscle cramping as a result of low magnesium intake because the typical vegetarian diet is abundant in magnesium. Low magnesium intake, however, is possible for people restricting calories or eating a diet high in processed foods. Low magnesium intake should be ruled out in cramp-prone athletes.

Carbohydrate

Inadequate carbohydrate stores have also been implicated as a potential cause of muscle cramps. Theoretically, it makes sense that hard-working muscles might experience cramping in association with the depletion of its power source—carbohydrate. While all athletes should consider the recommendations presented earlier to optimize performance, athletes with a history of cramping during prolonged exercise should ensure that they consume adequate carbohydrate during exercise and in the days before and days following an endurance event.

Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/learn-the-connection-between-diet-and-muscle-cramping

This skill-building approach to motivating upper-elementary students to eat better and stay active began as a joint research project between the Harvard School of Public Health and Baltimore Public Schools. Today the program is used in all 50 states and more than 20 countries, and it won the Dannon Institute Award for Excellence in Community Nutrition in 2000. Eat Well Keep Moving, Second Edition, is a comprehensive, multifaceted program that encompasses the classroom, the cafeteria, and the gymnasium and includes tools to involve the family and the community. This program differs from most in that it addresses nutrition and physical activity simultaneously. And it’s proven to be effective at combating a major factor related to childhood obesity: too much time in front of the TV screen. In extensive field tests among students and teachers using the program, children ate more fruits and vegetables, reduced their intake of saturated and total fat, watched less TV, and improved their knowledge of nutrition and physical activity. The program is also well liked by teachers and students. For more information on this program, visit www.EatWellandKeepMoving.org.

Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/resources-for-a-school-based-nutrition-program

Sensory Modalities

When you hear the term imagery, you probably think of pictures in your mind’s eye. But an image need not be visual; it can be located in any one of your senses. Traditionally there are five senses: visual (seeing), auditory (hearing), tactile (touch), gustatory (taste), and olfactory (smell). This list is not satisfactory for training alignment and for people involved in exercise, sports, and dance. Proprioception and its subelements must be included in the list as separate sensory modalities. Proprioception consists of the kinesthetic sense (movement), the sense of position, balance, muscle tension, gravity, and effort. These are all perceptions that need to be distinguishable and imaginable if you are to improve your alignment and movement skills. A dancer needs to be an expert at experiencing subtle shifts of weight, as does a gymnast, diver, and many other types of athletes. Other sensory modalities include rhythm and timing. Imagining the rhythm can be very helpful in improving motor control and accelerating the learning movement. A dancer or athlete may be strong and flexible, but if the sense of rhythm is awry, performance will suffer (MacPherson, Collins, and Obhi 2009).

Often the most powerful imagery is composed of several modalities that can occur simultaneously or in rapid order. This does not mean you should always use as many senses as possible when you use imagery; rather, you should use only the ones that create the best results for you. A dancer may rely on auditory and kinesthetic imagery, an athlete on the combination of visual and kinesthetic imagery. A cook will most likely rely mostly on gustatory and olfactory modalities. If you imagine yourself standing under a waterfall, you may have the sensory experiences of seeing and feeling the water pouring down your body, hearing it thundering all around you, smelling its fresh scent, and tasting it in your mouth. By using many senses, you begin to enrich the image, which may make it more effective. This is not always easy, because most of us prefer to use imagery in one or two senses. Notice which type of sensory imagery feels least comfortable to you and gradually add these elements into your practice of imagery.

The brain purposely gives a sense of completeness of your sensory world to make you feel safer. The senses send your brain information about your environment, registering what changes and what doesn’t. The nervous system does not supply you with all the information it gathers with its sensors throughout the body. If it did, you would be flooded with information. The sensations go through a filter, a gateway before arriving at the brain, much like the kidneys filter blood. Once the information arrives, the brain completes the picture, makes sense of it, and gives it meaning. An image localized in only one part of the body can powerfully influence the entire body. The image may be just one aspect of what is needed to change the whole. Trying to process all the information needed to make a change may be overwhelming, but give the brain just one hint and it can absorb the other changes below the level of consciousness.

Imagine you are in a dark room with a flashlight in your hand. If you shine the light in one direction, you can see a chair leg; if you shine it in another direction, you see a vase and a telephone. Although you see only parts of these objects, you still recognize them because your brain completes the information. If the flashlight emitted a ray of light as thin as a laser beam, this would be a good representation of how limited the senses are. Also, as you walk through the dark room, you may choose to focus your attention on subtle sounds, on hints of light, and on the texture of the floor under your feet. You are now opening these sensory gateways to increase your perceptions of touch and hearing. Turning up the volume on certain sensory perceptions is one of the keys to improving movement skills and alignment. If you are standing, you may not normally focus on the pressure distribution of your feet on the floor. By turning up the volume on tactile perception, you may be able to use this information to adjust your balance. If you regularly turn up the volume on feeling your body moving, the kinesthetic sense, you will also improve your skill at imagining movement kinesthetically because of the equivalence of the areas representing the perception and actual movement. The more you can develop the richness of your senses, the greater the impact of your images. Like a painter who needs to create the subtlest changes in hue, you need to hone the precision of your sensory images.

As you go through the following exercises, notice which of the senses is easiest for you to imagine. Is it feeling movement (kinesthetic-proprioception), visual, auditory, or other? Decide to practice more sensory imagery in the areas where you feel challenged to empower your imagery facility.

Proprioceptive Imagery

Proprioception (of which kinesthetic imagery is an aspect) involves the physical feel of a movement. It includes the sense of position, muscle tension, balance, gravity, and effort. For example, you may imagine how much muscle tension you are using to push your body into the air as you jump, how your body feels in the air as you jump, or how much effort you are using to plow through the water when you are swimming. Noticing subtle changes in proprioception is an important tool for aligning your body as well as for accomplishing any movement.

Tactile Imagery

Tactile imagery is closely related to kinesthetic imagery. In fact, the two are sometimes combined under the joint heading of tactile-kinesthetic. I like to distinguish between the two because purely kinesthetic imagery need not be elicited by touch, but it is a prerequisite for tactile imagery. You might remember how you were touched by a teacher who coached you in an exercise. In this way, you can reinforce the image until it becomes ingrained in your nervous system. Practicing imagery with a partner is aided by specific tactile imagery of where, how, and when you touch or are touched by your partner. You may also conjure up imaginary massaging hands to release shoulder tension.

Auditory Imagery and Rhythm

Before they perform, musicians often use auditory imagery to hear the sound they want their instruments to produce. Dancers can hear the music in the mind’s ear while practicing certain dance sequences. Before a dancer performs a pirouette or an athlete throws a javelin, it is helpful to have the image of the rhythm of these movements. Jaclyn Villamil, former ballet teacher in New York, once suggested the auditory image of hearing an ascending scale as you raise your leg into the air. Perhaps a high jumper can benefit from this image as well. In alignment practice, you can “hear” the strength of your central axis, imagining it to be a powerful geyser. You might also remember the pitch and timbre of a correction you received in class and store it in your auditory memory for future use.

Olfactory Imagery

The sense of smell, very important for animals, is less important for humans than the visual and auditory senses. Yet olfactory images can be powerful because they have the most direct pathway to the brain of all sensory images. A smell can instantly conjure up the distinct ambience of a place visited long ago. Smells attract and repel humans like no other sensory stimulation. Try the olfactory image of moving through a space filled with the scent of a luscious perfume or flower and notice how it affects your posture.

Gustatory Imagery

Gustatory images govern the realm of taste. A good cook can imagine how a sauce will taste before mixing the ingredients, or how the taste of a soup will change depending on what spices are added. An actor might imagine the tastes his or her character encounters during a lunch scene. Clay Taliaferro, original member of the José Limón dance company who is famous for his role in Limón’s choreography of The Moor’s Pavane, directed the dancers at a workshop in France to be involved in the movement as if tasting it, as if chewing on a sweet, succulent
carrot.

Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/learn-which-senses-create-the-best-results-for-you

Examples of Sensory Images

1. Testing: Test your sensory preferences and skills:

• Visual: Can you remember sequences from the last movie you saw?
• Proprioceptive-kinesthetic: Can you imagine feeling cycling or swimming? Lifting something and experiencing its weight? The feeling of tensing your muscles? The feeling of relaxing your muscles? The feeling of falling off balance and regaining it again? The difference between running up a hill with a lot of effort and casually walking along the street?
• Tactile: Can you imagine yourself touching a soft piece of cloth, a hard metal surface, and the bristles of a brush?
• Auditory: Can you imagine hearing your favorite music? A bird’s song?
• Olfactory: Can you imagine smelling one of your favorite foods? The scent of a flower?
• Gustatory: Can you imagine tasting delicious food?
• Timing and rhythm: Can you imagine the feeling of running rhythmically at a certain speed and then changing that speed and rhythm?

2. Sensory richness: Imagine a waterfall in front of you. See the sunlight reflected in it, making it glitter like a fluid diamond; feel the pressure created by the water’s force; hear the high and low pitches of a crescendo; taste the water droplets on your lips; smell the pungent, enriched air.

3. Sensory stimulation: Carry a sack of rice on your head for a moment. When you remove it, you can readily experience your head floating upward. Walk on all fours with the same sack on your back, moving your back up and down. When you remove the sack, you will find that your back is more flexible and snakelike.

4. Projection of a sensory experience: Knead a piece of clay and experience its malleability. Feel the clay in your hand, smell the clay, look at its color. Then focus on a spot in your body that needs to be more malleable and project your experience into that area. Next, hold a piece of wood in one hand and a piece of cotton in the other. Notice the difference in texture and quality. Shift your concentration from the hardness of the wood to the softness of the cotton. Project this experience onto a point in your body that needs to transform from hardness to softness.

5. Foot motion: Move one of your feet in many ways. Imagine it to be as malleable as a piece of clay. Wiggle it, shake it, circle it, tap it against the floor, pick up and release an imaginary towel with your toes. Then stand up and compare the feeling in your left foot and right foot and left leg and right leg. You may notice that your legs feel as though they are aligned differently. One leg may seem to have more volume or to be straighter than the other.

6. Balance: Stand with your weight equally distributed on both feet. Lift one foot off the floor and balance for a moment. Do the same with the other leg. Lift one leg again and imagine that a clone of that leg is still standing on the floor. Notice the difference between your ability to balance when using and not using this image.

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Transverse Tarsal Joint

The transverse tarsal joint (the midtarsal joint) is composed of the talonavicular and the calcaneocuboid articulations (figure 11.38). Together with the subtalar joint, the
transverse tarsal joint creates most of the supination and pronation action of the foot. The two joints can work together to create a large degree of supination and pronation or in opposition to each other, allowing the forefoot and hindfoot to twist in opposite directions.

Working together to create full supination, the subtalar and transverse tarsal joints cause the foot to become more rigid, which is called the closed-pack position and increases the stability of the foot. The foot is now in lever mode and is able to push against the ground with great force. If the foot is fully pronated, the bones unwind and the foot becomes more flexible. This can be described as the foundation mode where the foot is wider on the ground than in the air. The foot should not spend all its time fixated in either one of these positions but be able to change between the two modes depending on the necessities of movement and the terrain.

Without the transverse tarsal joint, it would be difficult to walk across uneven ground because this joint mediates between the forefoot and the hindfoot (figure 11.39). If the forefoot is forced to supinate, the hindfoot need not follow suit because the transverse tarsal joint can counter this action, allowing the heel to remain vertical. The reverse holds true as well: If the heel slips and rolls into a pronated position, for example, the forefoot can remain flat on the ground.

If the forefoot is made to pronate, the hindfoot counters by supinating. If the heel slips and rolls into a supinated position, the forefoot compensates by pronating (see figure 11.32c). This is essential if you like to walk in moccasins or barefoot, but otherwise the rigid shoes worn today all but eliminate the action of the transverse tarsal joint. This is not necessarily advantageous, because it places additional strain on the ankle and knee joints. Also, certain muscles and joints of the foot lose strength because they are not being exercised.

The transverse tarsal joint, also called Chopart’s joint, has a wavelike contour. The lateral part of the wave is formed by the articulation between the calcaneus and the cuboid. The cuboid is somewhat triangular in shape and its joint surface facing the calcaneus is shaped like a saddle. The ventral calcaneus is somewhat funnel shaped and faces the cuboid with its matching convex saddle-shaped joint surface. The joints interlock rather firmly, helping to stabilize the heel side of the foot. The medial part of the transverse tarsal joint is between the tarsal bone and the navicular. The navicular offers an oval concave joint surface that is smaller than the opposing facet from the talus, which is convex. Here ample movement is possible. You can imagine an Earth-to-Moon relationship as the flexible navicular swings around its more stable neighbor in supination and pronation.

Two joint axes can be visualized in the transverse tarsal joint, creating supination and pronation with a spiraling feeling in the midfoot and forefoot. The longitudinal axis runs in a slightly oblique fashion through the calcaneus and the nose of the cuboid. Around this axis the forefoot spirals in an inversion-and-eversion fashion. The oblique axis runs from craniomedial to caudolateral and is angled 50 degrees to horizontal. The spiral created by this axis contains adduction and plantar flexion in supination and abduction and dorsiflexion in pronation.

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Imagery Exercises for the Transverse Tarsal Joint

1. Long-axis tarsal twist: Firmly hold your heel with one hand. With the other hand, twist (supinate and pronate) the forefoot along the long axis of the foot. Imagine you are wringing a towel while keeping it in a straight line. Visualize the facet of the navicular spinning on the head of the talus. Notice that the medial aspect of the transverse tarsal joint is moving more than the lateral. After twisting one foot, compare the feel and balance of both feet in a standing position.

2. Oblique-axis tarsal twist: Firmly hold your heel with one hand. With the other hand, twist (supinate and pronate) the forefoot along an oblique axis through the foot. Supinating the foot will now involve some plantar flexion and adduction; pronating the foot will involve some dorsiflexion and abduction. Your imaginary towel is now twisting and flexing at the same time. After twisting one foot, compare the feeling of both feet in a standing position.

3. Imagining the transverse tarsal action in the standing leg in flexion and extension: Stand in a comfortable position. Flex our lower limbs while visualizing the subtalar and transverse tarsal joints. Imagine a slight unwinding of the foot spiral as you bend your legs. Imagine a slight amount of foot spiraling as you stretch your legs. If you prefer anatomical imagery, imagine a slight amount of supination in the transverse tarsal joint as you bend your legs and a slight amount of pronation in your transverse tarsal joint as you stretch your legs. Notice what happens if you perform the opposite action: pronation of the transverse tarsal joint during lower-limb flexion. Your foot as a whole will tend to overpronate and may feel like it is collapsing inward.

4. Heel as a boat on the waves: Supinate and pronate your feet while in a standing position. Imagine the heel to be a boat rocking on the waves (figure 11.40). As you pronate your foot, the top of the heel-ship will rock inward; however, the transverse tarsal joint allows the midfoot and forefoot to counterbalance in the opposite direction of supination. As you supinate your foot, the heel-ship rocks outward and the transverse tarsal joint and forefoot oppose the action by pronating.

5. Forefoot and hindfoot twist: Take an object such as this book (you may walk along the outer edge of this book; it’s included in the price) and place it under the lateral side of your forefoot. Notice how the forefoot pronates and the hindfoot relatively supinates to keep your talus upright. Now place the book under the medial forefoot. In this case, the forefoot is supinating while the hindfoot is relatively pronating to keep you from losing your balance.

6. Uneven ground: Take a walk over imaginary uneven ground. Visualize a variety of odd shapes to step on and watch how your foot adapts. Now collect some real objects that cannot harm your feet, such as small stones. After experimenting for a while with walking on real objects, try walking over the imaginary uneven ground again.

7. Rubber raft: Imagine your foot to be an inflatable rubber raft. Such a raft can readily adapt to all kinds of waves because it is able to twist along its longitudinal axis. Watch the twisting adjustments of the raft as you walk along a rocky road (figure 11.41).

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Musculature of the Abdomen and Back

Often muscles seem to be running in discrete lines and directions, with insertions and origins being discernable. In reality, there are more interconnections between muscles through the fascial network than commonly depicted. Not only are muscles interrelated but also the layering of muscles down to the sarcomeres are in a complex fascial dialogue. When you observe the muscles of the back, organizational principles are not apparent at first. It is therefore best to understand these muscles as patterns and relationships.

The long erector spinae muscles at the back of the torso—spinalis, longissimus, and iliocostalis (from the center out)—lie in three strands parallel to the vertebral column (figure 12.37). These muscles are involved in dynamic stabilization and movement of the spine, torso, and head as well as breathing. The lowest part arises from a strong aponeurosis that is attached to the sacrum and iliac crest. From here, discrete bands run up to the ribs (iliocostalis), transverse processes and ribs (longissimus), and spinous processes (spinalis). The longissimus is the most developed of the three and the iliocostalis the most lateral. All of these muscles can extend the spine, but the more lateral strand also can flex the spine to the side.

Below the erector muscles, several groups of short muscles lie deep within the gutter next to the spinous processes. These so-called transversospinalis muscles are the multifidi, semispinalis, and rotators. They all run from the transverse processes to spinous processes but at different angles. The most oblique are the rotators because they cross only one or two vertebrae. The multifidi cross two to four vertebrae and are therefore more angled upward. The semispinalis is the most oblique of all, crossing four to six vertebrae. Together, they look like layers of triangles with ever-larger and longer sides and narrower peaks. The semispinalis is the largest and most medial of the lumbar back muscles. It has wide attachments at the back of the pelvis and lower spine, such as the lumbosacral ligaments, posterior surface of the sacrum, posterior iliac spine, and the even sacrotuberous ligament. The deep fibers of the multifidi are in the perfect position to control shear and torsion and seem to have differing neural control from the superficial part. The deep layers play an important role in the dynamic stabilization of the low back and contract in anticipation of movement. The superficial layer is more able to extend the low back and control lordosis (Moseley, Hodges, and Gandevia 2002).

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Imagery Exercises for the Erector Spinae

1. Roll down, roll up from transversospinalis: Imagine the erector spinae muscles. Lying deep to them are the transversospinalis muscles. Flex your spine and roll down slowly, focusing on the transversospinalis muscles. Roll up again, initiating from the transversospinalis. In rolling down, imagine the spinous processes stretching away from the lower-lying transverse processes. In rolling up, imagine the spinous processes being pulled downward toward the lower-lying transverse processes. Repeat several times and notice the sensations arising from your spine and especially notice your posture. See if you can perform this exercise without moving at all as a mental simulation of movement with the previous anatomical imagery.

2. Roll down, roll up from erectors: Perform the same movement as previously, but focus on the more superficial erectors: spinalis, longissimus, and iliocostalis. Notice the difference in feeling between the two images.

3. Activate the deep muscles: Imagine the deep muscles of the spine, the transversospinalis muscles. Starting from an upright position, roll down the spine. As you roll up again, imagine the strength for this action residing in the deep spinal muscles while the superficial muscles remain soft and relaxed. You may imagine muscles sliding to focus your activation on the deep layers. Repeat rolling down and rolling up with this focus. Notice the improved alignment and feeling of centeredness in the spine after this imagery exercise. Also practice this as a mental simulation of movement combined with the previous image.

4. Deep and superficial multifidi (standing): Notice the state of your low back: How relaxed or tense does it feel? Move your low back by anteriorly and posteriorly rotating your pelvis. Now visualize the multifidi. Imagine that you are lifting your arms without actually doing it. Mentally simulate moving your torso. Imagine you are rapidly lifting and lowering your arms. Now lift and lower your arms actively several times and notice changes in your perception of lumbar spine movement. Has anything changed?

5. Melting the superficial layer (standing position): Place the fingertips of both hands on the multifidi just above the sacrum. See if you can find a position where the multifidi (at least the superficial layer) seem relaxed. Imagine the superficial layer is melting. It may be helpful to flex your legs and slightly rotate your pelvis to find this position. Once you have achieved some relaxation, see if you can maintain this superficial softness as you very slightly flex and extend your lumbar spine. Give it at least two minutes before you remove your fingers. You may now notice that your low back has relaxed significantly.

6. Centered action of the abdominals (sitting, standing, supine): Visualize four pairs of small spheres, or beads, on four common strings—one vertical, one horizontal, and two diagonal, all joining at the navel. As you exhale, watch the beads move toward each other and merge at the navel. As you inhale, the beads glide back to their original positions (figure 12.38).

7. Pelvis suspended from the back of the neck (standing): Imagine the front rim of the pelvis to be hanging from the back of the head on strands of muscles spiraling around to the front of the body like an apron hanging down in front and tied at the back of the neck. As the back of the head floats up, so does the front rim of the pelvis. Watch the sacrum drop as the front of the pelvis rises.

8. Water releases the muscles (standing): Imagine comfortably warm water flowing down along your spine and releasing muscular tension, melting it away wherever it can be found (figure 12.39). Be detailed about the image as you see the water flow around the transverse and spinous processes and relax the areas around all muscle insertions. Imagine also the muscles around your coccyx releasing. If you are successful in relaxing the muscles, you may feel more centered on your legs, and your shoulders will relax.

9. River down the back (supine): Imagine a river flowing down your back, expelling all muscular tension (figure 12.40). Visualize the tension points as little rocks and pieces of wood carried out with the flow. Imagine the murky water turning crystal clear. Watch the river flow down through the gutters between your spine and ribs to flush out all remaining tension.

10. Stroking the cat’s back (supine, sitting, standing): Imagine your back to be covered with fluffy fur like a cat’s back. Visualize the fur as ruffled and in disarray, and mentally stroke it from head to tail, untangling and smoothing it (figure 12.41). (Exercise adapted from Barbara Clark.)

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Parsimony, Elegance, and Conceptual Coherence in Sport Psychology

In 2008 I was asked to give the Coleman Griffith Lecture at the annual meeting of AASP in St. Louis, Missouri, which had the title, Whatever Happened to Parsimony, Elegance, and Conceptual Coherence in Sport Psychology? I decided to argue that forsaking some fundamental attributes of science was not in the best interests of scholars and practitioners in sport psychology. I believe that there is value in maintaining the attributes of parsimony, elegance, and conceptual coherence. Let me explain.

Parsimony

One of Einstein’s famous quotes is that in science we should make everything as simple as possible, but not too simple! Parsimony in science simply means that we keep constructs as simple as possible. In my Coleman Griffith talk, I argued that there is a trend in sport psychology to make constructs more complex than they need to be. Some of this results from the natural desire to make constructs more applicable to the sport context, such as the efforts of Harwood and colleagues, but scholars often do not realize that by making things more “relevant” to sport they also make the constructs more complex and cause a subsequent loss of parsimony. McFee, a philosopher of science, is harshly critical of scholars in sport psychology because of their penchant for explaining phenomena with “boxes and arrows” and making things more complex than they should be (McFee, 2005). He argues that he is against the “boxes” mentality prevalent in sport psychology, where what is hoped for is a graphic model of boxes connected by arrows, as though sport psychologists knew what the boxes and arrows meant. In my address I gave several examples of complex multilevel theories (e.g., Vallerand, 2001; the hierarchical model of motivation derived from self-determination theory) of this trend toward complexity, in addition to the work of Elliot and colleagues (e.g., 1999) and Harwood and colleagues (e.g., 2008), which I criticized earlier. Is this trend toward complexity one that we should follow?

In her profile of Nobel Prize winners, Zuckerman (1977) gave several attributes of the typical prize winner, but one common attribute is particularly noteworthy: They see simplicity where other people see complexity. As an example, when Crick and Watson (1953) in their quest to discover the structure of the DNA molecule published their model of the double helix, Maurice Wilkins (a fellow scientist who was a rival in the quest) was surprised to see how simple the model was and is quoted to have said, “How simple, how elegant” (Watson, 1996). The quest for expanded frameworks might be valuable because we may be able to provide a better description of the complexity of motivation processes, but a cost is often present, and part of that cost is a loss of parsimony! It is well for sport scientists to remember the famous saying of William of Occam (1285–1347): “Entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity.” Known as Occam’s Razor, it is a call for parsimony, which is sometimes ignored.

There are many examples of scientists in psychology “seeing simplicity” when others had noticed only complexity. These examples spur research into the phenomenon and allow us to understand it better. The example of the social facilitation paradigm is a case in point. Historically, scientists had noted that the presence of others sometimes facilitated and sometimes inhibited the performance of individuals on a variety of tasks (e.g., Triplett, 1897). But in his review of the findings, Zajonc (1965) saw simplicity when he realized that learning tasks were inhibited by the presence of others, whereas performance tasks or simple tasks were facilitated by the presence of others. Further, he argued, the presence of others creates arousal and arousal facilitates the dominant response. When learning, the dominant response was incorrect; when performing, the dominant response was correct. This simple insight suddenly made sense of the previous 70 years of conflicting research. This ability to see simplicity sometimes gives a conceptual insight into psychological (and other disciplinary) mechanisms.

Elegance

Again, Crick and Watson (1953) give a classic example of elegance, which is the attribute of being simple but profound in its implications. In their article in Nature, they concluded by stating that it had not escaped their notice that the specific pairing of the double helix they had postulated suggested a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material! As we now know, this was the most profound scientific finding of the 20th century. The double helix solution was elegant in that it gave clear theoretical and practical meaning and changed our understanding of biological systems. Indeed, it was the birth of modern biology.

We can find many examples in psychology, too. One elegant theory is the social facilitation paradigm (Zajonc, 1965), which I discussed earlier. Zajonc demonstrated his elegant conceptual explanation with an elegant experiment. He had two groups of participants learn a complex task over many trials. One group did it in the presence of others, and the control group learned the task alone. Zajonc demonstrated that performing in the presence of others inhibited learning but facilitated later performance when compared to the control group: A simple but elegant and profound experiment demonstrated his theory. This experiment, and the later research that it stimulated (e.g., Martens, 1969), gave us insight into the reasons arousal and evaluative anxiety inhibited learning on motor tasks.

Another example of a parsimonious and elegant construct is self-efficacy (e.g., Bandura, 1977b). Self-efficacy cognitions represent a person’s convictions or beliefs that he or she can successfully execute a course of action to produce a certain outcome. It is likened to a situation-specific self-confidence. But in this context, it is a simple but elegant construct that has stimulated a great deal of research into the determinants of motivation in exercise and physical activity (see Gilson Feltz, this volume). And, of course, as I have been trying to expound, achievement goal theory in its original form is a parsimonious and elegant theory, too.

Conceptual Coherence

Parsimony and elegance are valued attributes for a theory, but conceptual coherence is an essential attribute! As we all know, theory gives meaning to data. Having an empirical paradigm that is weak on coherent constructs is not a desirable paradigm. These empirical paradigms with weak constructs, or constructs that lack conceptual coherence, are what produce the random noise in the literature against which the true signal of advancement is difficult to discern (Roberts, 1989). I must confess that in my experience with doctoral students, I find that they generally become sophisticated in research methods and statistical analyses but often struggle with understanding the psychological constructs and mechanisms about how things work psychologically. My favorite question to students who are preparing a research agenda is to ask them how they know that they are asking the right questions, or even important ones? I am reminded of the adage, If it is not worth doing, it is not worth doing well! The most important task that we can do as mentors of doctoral students is to make certain they understand that theory gives meaning to data and that statistical and research sophistication are secondary and merely tools to demonstrate the meaningfulness of theory. But they must do more than use “just any theory.” Is the theory coherent and meaningful to the question being asked? All of us have to make our own decisions about what constructs give meaning to the research that we are undertaking. My argument here is that the conceptual base should be coherent!

As an example, at the 2009 ISSP Congress in Marrakesh, Ed Deci was asked to react to some research papers, using self-determination theory as the conceptual base. When one researcher used self-determination theory to overlay his own theory to add impetus to his normal theoretical paradigm, Deci commented that it did not make much sense to do that because the theories were quite different in their conceptual base. His point was that it was better to build constructs within the conceptual paradigm used to capture the dynamics of the question being asked rather than bring in another theory and overlay the constructs of that theory over the original constructs. In other words, to give meaning to data, the theory must be conceptually coherent!

Achievement goal theory is a social-cognitive theory that was developed from the learned helplessness (mastery versus helplessness) research of Dweck (e.g., 1975), the cooperation–competition research of Ames (e.g., 1984a), the motivation research of Maehr (e.g., 1983) and the work of Nicholls (e.g., 1978) on the various conceptions of ability that children held. From this research, Nicholls saw simplicity where others had seen complexity and presented the parsimonious constructs that we all know today. Nicholls’ unique contribution was to recognize that two understandings of ability existed and that previous theories had assumed one or the other. For example, self-efficacy (see Gilson Feltz, this volume) assumes a task-involving conception of ability, whereas attribution theory (e.g., Weiner, 1972) assumes an ego-involving conception of ability. Nicholls, Maehr, Ames, and Dweck developed a theory (with their own interpretations) that recognized that both conceptions of ability need to be inherent in the theory. In addition, they recognized that individual difference variables (goal orientations) and contextual dynamics (motivational climate) were part of the same conceptual paradigm. That is the elegance of achievement goal theory. By recognizing that we each use task- or ego-involving conceptions of ability depending on the context, we have a conceptually coherent theory that encompasses both versions of the definition of success and embraces both individual difference variables (goal orientations) and the effect of the situation (motivational climate) on achievement striving.

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Practical Applications

Although some nuances were found, research reviewed in this chapter has shown that harmonious passion is generally associated with more positive consequences than obsessive passion is. It would therefore seem appropriate to propose ways of facilitating harmonious passion. To promote harmonious passion, the three-step process at the core of the development of passion (see Mageau, Vallerand, Charest, et al., 2009) can be used. The three steps are, respectively, (1) activity selection, (2) activity valuation, and (3) the internalization of the activity representation in a person’s identity. As seen previously, the role of the social environment at each of the three stages is crucial. Adults are in a prime position to promote children’s harmonious passion, especially if they nurture children’s need for autonomy and relatedness. With respect to the first step of activity selection, parents and physical educators should encourage children to perform a variety of sport activities, especially at a relatively young age (3–6 years). Later on (age 7–10 years), parents can register their children for a different activity each term. When they have tried a variety of activities and have developed sufficient knowledge to make decisions (perhaps around age 10 to 13 years), children can be encouraged to decide for themselves which activity they would like to engage in for the season. Such a variety of experiences may translate into a greater likelihood of selecting an activity that is a good fit with the child’s identity and will thus later become a passion (see Mageau et al., 2009). Enjoyable experiences devoid of pressure and coercion in which children are provided with autonomy support and have the opportunity to choose by themselves their sport activity should set the stage for harmonious passion to blossom. In contrast, pressure or coercion to engage in sport or physical activity is likely to lead to the development of either amotivation (or the loss of motivation) or an obsessive passion toward the sport.

Autonomy support is also recommended for the other two stages of passion development. For instance, with respect to the second step in the passion development process, namely valuation of the selected sport activity, noncontrolling and supportive parents, physical educators, and coaches who preach by example and serve as models (e.g., Bandura, 1977a) may provide the necessary impetus to lead the young athletes to invest further in the sport activity and value it even more. The role of peers should not be underestimated because friends’ influence becomes increasingly important as children move toward puberty (Damon, 1988). It should not be surprising that players on the same team have similar levels and types of passion in part because of the coach’s influence but also because of the modeling influence that teammates provide. Such influence may lead to the internalization of the prevalent type of passion in that particular team environment. Similarly, a harmonious passion is likely to develop if the internalization process takes place in social environments (e.g., parents, friends, and especially coaches) that promote children’s sense of autonomy (Deci Ryan, 1987, 2000) by providing opportunities for choices, ownership, or “voice” regarding decisions and behaviors. For example, athletes who have recently started cross country running would be more likely to develop a harmonious passion toward this sport if their coach clearly explains to them why it is important to practice daily and gives them opportunities to choose among various practice regimens. Conversely, chances are that the same athletes would either lose their motivation for running or develop an obsessive passion if their coach pressures or coerces them to practice more or fails to explain the purpose of various training exercises.

Finally, practitioners and coaches who work with elite athletes should keep in mind that providing autonomy support is also important with high-level athletes. Indeed, by helping athletes feel autonomous by allowing them to provide input in game decisions (perhaps in the manner of Phil Jackson of the Los Angeles Lakers), the coach is likely to help maintain athletes’ harmonious passion, facilitate a high level of performance, and create positive coach–athlete relationships. Coaches and consultants may believe that it is appropriate to be controlling toward high elite and professional athletes because such practices may enhance performance. Although the evidence presented in this chapter does not indicate that being controlling necessarily undermines performance, it does indicate that such behavior is likely to lead to obsessive passion and thus to some negative outcomes, such as lower levels of psychological, health, and relational well-being in athletes. In turn, negative coach–athlete relationships may have ill effects on cohesion, indirectly and negatively affect performance, and even cost the coach her or his job. Thus, creating an autonomy supportive environment may go a long way in providing positive outcomes for both athletes and coaches.

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