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Estimation of 24-Hour and Physical Activity Energy Expenditure
It is very costly, and in most cases impractical, to measure 24-hour energy expenditure or to monitor physical activity energy expenditure through either direct or indirect calorimetry. These two methods of measurement are used only for research and clinical applications. Therefore, most professionals use energy expenditure prediction equations, movement analysis devices, or both, to estimate the energy cost of physical activity and the 24-hour energy expenditure for their clients. Tools used to monitor physical activity and estimate energy expenditure range from expensive and sophisticated machines, which are found only in health centers, to inexpensive gadgets and activity diaries, which can be found in almost any setting.
Activity Monitors
The most plausible tools for measuring either 24-hour energy expenditure or physical activity energy expenditure in the field are pedometers, accelerometers, and heart rate monitors. Pedometers are more suited for monitoring physical activity than 24-hour energy expenditure, whereas accelerometers and heart rate monitors are well suited for both.
Pedometers
Pedometers have been around for several decades. The pedometer itself measures the number of steps taken during the day. The summation of these steps is converted to a distance, and energy expenditure is estimated based on the distance traveled. Pedometer estimates for physical activity energy expenditure correlate moderately well with indirect calorimetry measures (Brown, Miller, and Eason 2006). However, only the total distance traveled is recorded on the pedometer, and there is no indication of the intensity of the physical activity. Therefore, pedometers are useful for gaining insight into 24-hour energy expenditure, but do not offer any reference to exercise intensity or activity patterns throughout the day. An advantage of pedometers is that they are relatively inexpensive; even children can learn how to use them.
Accelerometers
Accelerometers work on a principle that is different from that of pedometers. Accelerometers contain tiny force transducers that continuously measure the intensity, frequency, and duration of movement for extended periods of time. The forces measured by the accelerometer are summed and recorded as counts per time frame. There is no consensus about the accelerometer count thresholds for defining mild, moderate, and high exercise intensities. Nonetheless, accelerometers are valid and reliable for monitoring physical activity counts in both children and adults. Correlation coefficients between accelerometer counts and indirect calorimetry measures range from about 0.60 to 0.85, which represent fairly high correlations (Brown, Miller, and Eason 2006).
The advantage of accelerometers over pedometers is that accelerometers can measure the intensity of energy expenditure throughout the day, and this information can be downloaded to a computer. The computer then generates the data and pinpoints the fluctuations in energy expenditure at any time of day. The computer also uses regression equations to calculate the actual energy expenditure from recorded activity counts.
Heart Rate Monitors
Heart rate is strongly related to respiratory rate and energy expenditure across a wide range of values. Heart rate monitors are similar to accelerometers in that they can accumulate data from short or long bouts of activity throughout the day. Heart rate data can also be downloaded to a computer, and the magnitude of fluctuations in heart rate during the day can be pinpointed. Regression equations are used to convert heart rate measures to energy expenditure.
Activity Surveys and Diaries
Activity diaries necessitate that the participant (or an adult observer in the case of young children) make a record of every activity undertaken throughout the day. The person describes the nature of the activity and the time spent participating. This record includes activities that are sedentary as well as those that require physical exertion. Predetermined values for the energy expenditure of each activity noted in the diary are applied, and the energy expenditure is summed across time and throughout the day.
Activity surveys are similar to activity diaries, but rather than record the actual events at the time they occur (or shortly thereafter), recorders estimate the activity of an average day or an average week or month. In other words, people describe their usual routines over a period of many days, rather than recording actual events over a period of a few days. Calculations for energy expenditure are performed as with activity diaries to get the estimated energy expenditure.
The accuracy of physical activity surveys and diaries is variable; they range from being rather poor indicators of actual physical activity to being relatively good measures of physical activity. Activity surveys and diaries for children tend to be less accurate than those intended for adults. Nonetheless, physical activity surveys and diaries are commonly used to determine physical activity levels in both children and adults, because they are inexpensive, unobtrusive, and easily administered.
Many physical activity surveys have been designed for adults. Some of these have been intended for specific populations, or constructed specifically for independent research studies. The reliability and validity of these surveys is variable. The most popular of these surveys were collected and published by the American College of Sports Medicine (1997) several years ago.
One of the most popular physical activity surveys is the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (Craig et al. 2002; IPAQ 2011). The IPAQ comes in a long and short version, and in several languages, and can be downloaded (IPAQ 2011). Both versions ask respondents to record their health-related physical activity for the past seven days. Both versions can be either administered by a professional (in person), or self-administered. The long version consists of 27 questions that focus on job-related physical activity, transportation-related physical activity, housework, recreation and sport activity, and sedentary or sitting time. The short version of the form asks only seven questions about time spent in vigorous physical activity, moderate intensity activity, walking, and sitting.
A popular physical activity diary for older children and adolescents is the Previous Day Physical Activity Recall (PDPAR; Children’s Physical Activity Research Group 2011). The PDPAR was designed to provide accurate data on the type, frequency, intensity, and duration of physical activities; these are then used to estimate physical activity energy expenditure (Weston, Petosa, and Pate 1997). The PDPAR is an activity diary that is segmented into seventeen 30-minute intervals. Participants are given a list of 35 numbered activities in which youth normally engage. They record the number of the activity in which they participated for any given 30-minute interval of the previous day. For the selected activity, they also record the intensity as being very light (slow breathing and little or no movement), light (normal breathing and movement), medium (increased breathing and moderate movement), and hard (hard breathing and quick movement). An estimated energy expenditure value is then calculated for each activity within the given time frame.
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Using Lactate Threshold Data
Information provided by a lactate threshold test has a number of purposes. By understanding the role that lactate plays in exercise metabolism, the exercise physiologist can use the information from lactate threshold tests to predict proper racing and training paces, and assess the fitness of a subject or the efficacy of the training program. Although lactate production does not contribute to acidosis and lactate itself does not appear to cause fatigue, blood lactate accumulation does indicate that the body is relying on substantial contributions from anaerobic glycolysis to meet exercising energy requirements. Knowing the exercise intensity at which this occurs is valuable for two reasons: When glucose and glycogen are metabolized to lactate, only two or three ATP moleculesare generated per molecule of carbohydrate consumed compared to the 36 to 39 ATP moleculesthat are generated when pyruvate is produced and consumed through oxidative phosphorylation. Thus, the advent of lactate threshold signals that the body is consuming glucose and glycogen at an increased rate in respect to ATP production, which, ultimately, can lead to premature carbohydrate depletion and exhaustion. Therefore, athletes who partake in events that challenge their glycogen storage capacity should take into consideration the need to preserve carbohydrate stores when planning their pacing strategies.
Increases in blood lactate concentrations also indicate that the subject’s ATP consumption rate is beginning to exceed the ability to provide ATP through the oxidative pathway. The increase in blood lactate levels seen at this transitional intensity indicates that the body has to rely on glycolysis to provide adequate ATP supplies for the exercising muscle. Though lactate production does not result in acidosis and has a questionable role in causing fatigue, the accumulation of lactate in the blood indicates that maximal sustainable rates of exercise and ATP production are close at hand (Morris and Shafer 2010).
The relationship between lactate threshold and the rate of consumption of carbohydrate stores, and correlations between lactate threshold and maximal sustainable work rate, make lactate threshold a good predictor of endurance exercise performance. Previous studies (Foxdal et al. 1994; Tanaka 1990) have demonstrated close agreements between running paces at lactate threshold and average paces during competitive running events in distances ranging from 10,000 meters to the marathon. In studies using cycling ergometry, power outputs that elicited lactate threshold were similar to average power outputs during time trials ranging from 60 to 90 minutes (Bentley et al. 2001; Bishop, Jenkins, and Mackinnon 1998). However, in time trials ranging from 25 to 35 minutes, subjects typically maintain significantly higher power outputs than those that elicited lactate threshold (Bentley et al. 2001; Kenefick et al. 2002). Despite these discrepancies, correlations between power outputs at lactate threshold and average power outputs during the shorter time trials remained remarkably high, suggesting that performance in these events can be predicted from lactate threshold data with reasonable accuracy.
As in many physiological and anatomical systems, the mechanisms that influence lactate threshold are responsive to exercise training. Properly designed training programs can increase the capacity of the oxidative pathway by increasing oxygen delivery to the working muscle (Schmidt et al. 1988), mitochondrial numbers (Holloszy and Coyle 1984), and oxidative enzyme levels (Henriksson and Reitman 1976). These improvements in oxidative capacity increase the muscle’s ability to produce ATP, consume pyruvate, and regenerate NAD resulting in a reduced reliance on lactate production and an increase in work rates that are required to elicit lactate threshold.
Unlike maximal oxygen consumption, which can be significantly influenced by genetic factors (Bouchard et al. 1986), the exhibition of lactate threshold when expressed as a percentage of maximal oxygen consumption is primarily influenced by the level of conditioning (Henritze et al. 1985). This sensitivity to exercise training makes lactate threshold useful for assessing aerobic fitness and the efficacy of training programs. Well-trained endurance athletes tend to exhibit lactate threshold when exercising at 80% or more of their maximal oxygen consumption, whereas untrained people experience lactate threshold at substantially lower intensities (Joyner and Coyle 2008). Continued training at or above the work rate that elicits lactate threshold also results in increases in the power outputs that cause increased rates of lactate production and accumulation (Henritze et al. 1985). Therefore, the efficacy of a training program can be assessed by measuring lactate threshold prior to, and following, program implementation. A rightward shift, as seen in figure 6.10, suggests that the training program has been successful in increasing the work rate that elicits lactate threshold and maximal sustainable work rates.
The ability of lactate threshold to respond to training and predict competitive performance also makes it useful in prescribing proper training intensities. Scientific evidence supports the overload principle of training (Weltman et al. 1992), which suggests that the most effective way to improve physiological capacity is to train at an intensity that exceeds current ability. Thus, effective training strategies involve assessing athletes’ current performance capacities and using work intervals that exceed their current maximal sustainable work rates. Undoubtedly, the most accurate way of measuring an athlete’s performance capacity in a particular event is to measure performance during that event. Unfortunately, lengthy endurance events such as the marathon are physically taxing, which makes performing them simply to test performance capacity impractical. However, the relatively short and low-stress nature of a lactate threshold test makes it ideal for frequently assessing an athlete’s ability.
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Methods of Measurement for Muscular Strength
Although many of the factors affecting the expression of muscular strength cannot be controlled by the fitness professional interested in assessing muscular strength, many can. Therefore, before selecting a specific test of muscular strength, the fitness professional must consider several issues including the specificity of the test, the warm-up protocol, and the timing and order of muscular strength tests.
Specificity of Muscular Strength
From the preceding discussion of the mechanical and physiological factors affecting muscular strength, it should be apparent that the expression of muscular strength is specific to the test employed. Using tests of muscular strength that are mechanically dissimilar to the performance of interest can compromise the external and predictive validity of the data gathered. For example, differences between training and testing exercises in terms of the type of muscle contraction used (Abernethy and Jürimäe 1996; Rutherford and Jones 1986), open- versus closed-kinetic chain movements (Augustsson et al. 1998; Carroll et al. 1998), and bilateral versus unilateral movements (Häkkinen et al. 1996; Häkkinen and Komi 1983) have been shown to influence the magnitude of the gains in muscular strength accrued following a period of resistance training. Therefore, fitness professionals should consider the movement characteristics of any strength test used; the movements should be similar to the performance of interest with respect to the following mechanical factors (Siff 2000; Stone, Stone, and Sands 2007):
Movement Patterns
Force Magnitude (Peak and Mean Force)
Force magnitude refers to joint torques as well as ground reaction forces (GRF) during the movement. This information is garnered from biomechanical analyses.
Rate of Force Development (Peak and Mean Force)
Rate of force development refers to the rate at which a joint torque or the GRF is developed.
Acceleration and Velocity Parameters
Usually, in sporting and everyday movements, both velocity and acceleration characteristics change throughout the movement. Velocity is defined as the rate at which the position of a body changes per unit of time, whereas acceleration refers to the rate at which the velocity changes per unit of time. Given Newton’s second law of motion (a = F / m), the greatest accelerations are observed when the net forces acting on the body are largest. However, the greatest velocities will not coincide with the largest accelerations and, therefore, the largest net forces (unless the person is moving in a dense fluid such as water).
Ballistic Versus Nonballistic Movements
Ballistic movements are those in which motion results from an initial impulse from a muscular contraction, followed by the relaxation of the muscle. The motion of the body continues as a result of the momentum that it possesses from the initial impulse (this is the impulse-momentum relationship). This is in contrast to nonballistic movements, in which muscular contraction is constant throughout the movement. These categories of movements involve different mechanisms of nervous control.
Consideration of these mechanical variables will increase the likelihood of selecting a valid test of the muscular strength. Researchers have raised the concern that the relationships among the dependent variables associated with strength tests (e.g., maximal external load lifted, maximal force generated) and performance variables are rarely actually assessed (Abernethy, Wilson, and Logan 1995; Murphy and Wilson 1997). These relationships are discussed in relation to each test covered in this chapter where appropriate.
The type of equipment used for muscular strength tests has significant implications. For example, some tests of muscular strength can be performed using either machine weights, in which the movement is constrained to follow a fixed path, or free weights, in which the movement is relatively unconstrained. However, a test performed with machine weights will not necessarily produce the same outcome as the same test performed with free weights. Cotterman, Darby, and Skelly (2005) reported that the values recorded for measures of maximal muscular strength were different during both the squat and bench press movements when the exercises were performed in a Smith machine compared to when they were performed with free weights. Testing muscular strength with different types of equipment introduces significant systematic bias into the data and therefore severely compromises the reliability of the measures as well as the external validity.
Warm-Up Considerations
A warm-up is often performed prior to exercise to optimize performance and reduce the risk of injury (Bishop 2003, a and b; Shellock and Prentice 1985). As stated previously, the force capabilities of a muscle can be affected by the completion of previous contractions, resulting in either a decrease in force (fatigue) or an increase in force (PAP). Indeed, both fatigue and PAP are proposed to exist at opposite ends of a continuum of skeletal muscle contraction (Rassier 2000). Therefore, exercises performed as part of an active warm-up could significantly alter the expression of muscular strength during the test.
An increase in the temperature of the working muscles has been reported following both passive (e.g., external heating) and active (e.g., engaging in specific exercises) warm-up activities (Bishop 2003, a and b). However, the effects of increased temperature on measures of maximal muscular strength are unclear with increases in maximal isometric torque reported by some authors (Bergh and Ekblom 1979), whereas others have reported no change (de Ruiter et al. 1999).
Static stretches are often included in the warm-up routines of athletes. Researchers have reported a reduction in force during maximal voluntary contractions following an acute bout of static stretches (Behm, Button, and Butt 2001; Kokkonen, Nelson, and Cornwell 1998), leading some to propose that static stretches be excluded from warm-up routines prior to strength and power performances (Young and Behm 2002). However, Rubini, Costa, and Gomes (2007) recently noted methodological issues with many of the static stretching studies, concluding that an interference with muscular strength is usually observed following a stretching protocol in which many exercises are held for relatively long durations, which runs counter to common practice.Therefore, including static stretches in a warm-up routine prior to muscular strength testing may be permissible, as long as the total stretch duration is not excessive (four sets of exercises for each muscle group with 10-30 seconds stretch duration is recommended) and that the exercises are performed consistently during subsequent testing sessions.
Clearly, the warm-up performed prior to a strength test can have a significant influence on the expression of muscular strength, and so the examiner should give the warm-up due consideration. However, the most important factor associated with the warm-up would appear to be the consistency of the exercises incorporated; any alteration in the exercises performed will compromise the validity and reliability of the test. Jeffreys (2008) outlined the following warm-up protocols:
Timing and Order of Tests
Researchers have reported that the expression of strength under both isometric and isokinetic conditions is affected by the time of day the tests are taken, with greater strength values being recorded in the early evening (Guette, Gondin, and Martin 2005; Nicolas et al. 2005). Although the mechanisms behind this diurnal effect are unclear, the implication is that examiners need to consider the time of day when administering strength tests and to ensure consistency when administering the test during future sessions.
A test of muscular strength may be one of a number of tests performed on a person. In this case, the fitness professional needs to consider where to place the muscular strength test in the battery. This consideration is important given the effect that contractile history can have on the expression of muscular strength. Harman (2008) proposed the following order for tests in a battery based on energy system requirements and the skill or coordination demands of the tests:
Nonfatiguing tests (anthropometric measurements)
Agility tests
Maximum power and strength tests
Sprint tests
Muscular endurance tests
Fatiguing anaerobic tests
Aerobic capacity tests
Following this order should maximize the reliability of each test.
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Upper Body Tests for Power
The majority of tests and training protocols emphasize lower extremity muscular power. However, upper extremity power production and performance are also exceedingly important for most sports and activities. Two primary tests to examine maximal upper extremity anaerobic capacity and power are the Upper Body Wingate Anaerobic Test and the Medicine Ball Put. Each of these tests has been validated numerous times and has proven reliable across multiple populations.
Upper Body Wingate Anaerobic Test
Similar to the traditional WAnT for the lower body, the Upper Body Wingate Anaerobic Test is generally performed in a laboratory setting and has the advantage of providing several outcomes related to upper body anaerobic capacity. This test occurs with a 30-second time course using a modified cycle ergometer with an arm crank. The calculation of peak power is typically acquired within the first three to five seconds of work, and is expressed in total watts (W), or relative to body mass (W/kg). Further, using the entire 30 seconds of arm cranking, anaerobic capacity (AC) may be calculated as the total external work performed, and is expressed in kilojoules (kJ). Lastly, anaerobic fatigue is often reported, which allows for the calculation of the percentage of power output reduction throughout the test (i.e., fatigue index).
Equipment
Procedure
1. The subject should be seated comfortably in a chair placed behind the cycle ergometer so that the feet are flat on the floor. This allows the subject to pedal with no restrictions.
2. Warm-up: After initial familiarization with and individual adjustment of the upper body ergometer, the subject performs three to five minutes of light arm cranking, with no load or a load that is less than 20% of the load used for the actual test. At the end of each minute of the warm-up, the subject should perform approximately five seconds of maximal arm cranking.
3. Following the specific warm-up, the subject should participate in light dynamic stretching of the entire shoulder joint, pectoral musculature, and muscles of the biceps, triceps, and forearms. This time may also be used to further explain testing instructions.
4. The test is initiated with the subject cranking at maximal cadence against no load. A verbal command of “Go” provides the auditory cue to begin arm cranking. Once the subject is at maximal cadence (usually in the first one to three seconds), apply the external load for the 30-second all-out test. Load = 0.050 kilogram per kilogram of body mass (Monark cycle ergometer) (Nindl et al. 1995).
5. Following the application of the appropriate resistance, the 30-second test is started, and data collection commences. The subject must remain seated throughout the entire 30 seconds.
6. Flywheel revolutions per minute (rpm) are counted (preferably by photocell and computer interface), and peak power is calculated based on maximal rpm (usually over the first five seconds of work) and angular distance. Each revolution is equal to 1.615 meters.
7. The test is terminated after 30 seconds of all-out work. Following the test, a two- to five-minute cool-down period is recommended.
Outcome Measures
See the section Wingate Anaerobic Test. Table 9.9 provides typical values for peak mean power in males and females for the Upper Body Wingate Anaerobic Test.
Medicine Ball Put
The field test most frequently used to measure power of the upper body is the seated medicine ball put (Clemons, Campbell, and Jeansonne 2010).The widespread popularity of this test is due not only to the ease of administration, but also to the direct specificity of this movement to a functional task such as the chest pass in basketball, or even the rapid punching of combat athletes. Moreover, because this exercise is commonly used in training, test data may easily be extrapolated to training prescription.
Equipment
Procedure
1. The measuring tape is placed on the floor with the end positioned under the front frame of the bench, to anchor it.
2. The tip of the tape should be positioned so it is aligned with the outside of the medicine ball while it rests on the subject’s chest (i.e., in the ready position, prior to putting the ball) (Clemons, Campbell, and Jeansonne 2010; see figure 9.6).
3. The tape should be extended outward from the bench for at least 8 meters (26 feet), and secured to the floor.
4. Warm-up: After initial familiarization with the bench orientation and putting procedure, the subject performs five minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise, followed by several dynamic range of motion exercises for the shoulder and elbow joint (e.g., modified or regular push-ups or hand walk-outs). The subject is then allowed several submaximal trials with the appropriate medicine ball.
5. For the test, the subject should be seated comfortably on the incline bench with feet flat on the floor and the medicine ball against the chest.
6. The subject grasps the medicine ball with both hands, one on each side.
7. Without any additional bodily movement (e.g., trunk or neck flexion, arm countermovement), the subject attempts to propel (i.e., “put”) the medicine ball at an optimal trajectory of 45°, for maximal horizontal distance.
8. Every attempt should be made to propel the ball in a straight line, to yield valid data.
9. Three to five attempts are permitted, with a minimum of two minutes of rest between attempts.
Outcome Measures
Each test attempt should be measured by the closest chalk mark (i.e., in the direction of the bench) and recorded to the nearest centimeter or inch.
Modifications
This test has been used extensively with various loading parameters and across populations. Further, many studies have reported the use of upright benches (i.e., seated upright at 90°) instead of 45° incline benches. To maintain test quality, examiners should use the same protocol each time a given subject is tested.
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Measuring Balance and Stability
Fitness professionals should first establish the purpose of the test, pick a category that would fulfill that purpose, and then select a test based on the level of precision required and the resources available. Three tests, the balance error scoring system (BESS), the star excursion balance test (SEBT), and the modified Bass test, were selected for detailed discussion here because they represent different categories (postural steadiness, reach, and postural stability) and require minimal specialized equipment. Additionally, the BESS and SEBT have excellent reliability and a large body of literature supporting them. Interested readers should consult the original literature cited in the reference section for detailed procedures on conducting the other tests. Table 12.1 compares balance and stability evaluations.
Balance Error Scoring System (BESS)
Equipment
A foam balance pad. The foam pad is one piece of medium-density foam (45 cm2× 13 cm thick, density 60 kg/m3, load deflection 80-90).
Procedure
The six positions of the balance error scoring system test are depicted in figure 12.3. Three stances (double-leg support, single-leg support, and tandem) are held for 20 seconds on two surfaces (firm floor and foam pad) for six permutations (Riemann, Guskiewicz, and Shields 1999). During the tandem stance, the dominant foot is in front of the nondominant foot. During the single-leg stance, the subject stands on the nondominant foot. During the test, the eyes are closed and the hands are held on the hips (iliac crests).
Subjects are told to keep as steady as possible, and if they lose their balance, they are to try to regain the initial position as quickly as possible. Subjects are assessed one point for the following errors: lifting the hands off the iliac crests; opening the eyes; stepping, stumbling, or falling; remaining out of the test position for five seconds; moving the hip into more than 30° of hip flexion or abduction; or lifting the forefoot or heel (Riemann, Guskiewicz, and Shields 1999). A trial is considered incomplete if the subject cannot hold the position without error for at least five seconds. The maximal number of errors per condition is 10. An incomplete condition is given the maximal number of points (10). The numbers of errors for all six conditions are summed into a single score.
Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT)
Equipment
Athletic or masking tape
Procedure
The SEBT requires the floor to be marked with a star pattern in eight directions, 45° apart from each other: anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, posterolateral, posteromedial, anterolateral, and anteromedial (see figure 12.4). One foot is placed in the middle of the star pattern. The subject is instructed to reach as far as possible, sequentially (either clockwise or counter clockwise), in all eight directions.
The directions are not labeled consistently in the literature. For example, when balancing on the left leg and reaching to the right with the right leg, some authors call this direction medial (Gribble and Hertel 2003; Hertel et al. 2006), whereas others call it lateral (Bressel et al. 2007). This text adopts the convention that, when standing on the left leg, reaching to the right of the left leg is in the medial direction, whereas reaching to the left (and behind the stance leg) is in the lateral direction (see figure 12.4).
The subject makes a light tap on the floor, and then returns the leg to the center of the star. The distance from the center of the star to the tap is measured. The trial is nullified and has to be repeated if the subject commits any of the following errors: makes a heavy touch, rests the foot on the ground, loses balance, or cannot return to the starting position under control (Gribble 2003). The starting direction and support leg are chosen randomly. Three trials are performed and then averaged.
Because of the significant correlation between SEBT and leg length (.02 ? r2? .23) in a majority of the directions, excursion values should be normalized to leg length, measured from the ASIS to the medial malleolus (Gribble and Hertel 2003). Additionally, Hertel and colleagues (2006) suggested that testing in eight directions is redundant, and that testing only the posteromedial direction is sufficient for most situations. To decrease the effect of learning, Kinzey and Armstrong (1998) suggested that subjects be given at least six practice trials before being tested, although other authors suggested reducing the number of practice trials to four (Robinson and Gribble 2008).
Modified Bass Test
Equipment
Athletic or masking tape
Procedure
This multiple hop test requires that 1-inch (2.5 cm) tape squares be laid out in a course as shown in figure 12.5 (Riemann, Caggiano, and Lephart 1999). The subject is required to jump from square to square, in numbered sequence, using only one leg. The hands should remain on the hips. On landing, the subject remains looking facing straight ahead, without moving the support leg, for five seconds before jumping to the next square.
There are two types of errors: landing errors and balance errors. A landing error occurs if the subject’s foot does not cover the tape, if the foot is not facing forward, if the subject stumbles on landing, or if the subject takes the hands off the hips. A balance error occurs if the subject takes the hands off the hips or if the nontesting leg touches down, touches the opposite leg, or moves into excessive flexion, extension, or abduction. The subjects may look at the next square before jumping to it.
The examiner should count aloud the five seconds the subject is to maintain the position before moving to the next square. At the conclusion of the test, 10 points are given for each five-second period in which there was a landing error and 3 points for each period in which there was a balance error. The sum of the two is the total score. At least two practice sessions should be given before testing for score.
Interpreting the Results
When interpreting the results of balance or stability tests,values can be compared to normative data, the other leg (if performed on a single leg), or the same person over time. Normative data are presented for the BESS, SEBT, and modified Bass in tables 12.2 through 12.4, respectively. Currently, no data exist to suggest either a cutoff score for these tests or, in the case of the SEBT or modified Bass test, a bilateral difference that would be a cause for concern. These are areas for future investigations. Balance scores tend to be better in the morning than in the afternoon or evening (Gribble, Tucker, and White 2007), suggesting that if multiple tests are to be compared over time, the time of day needs to be standardized.
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Responding to Behaviors With PRIDE
Most teachers and parents are familiar with the cliché, “Example is the best teacher.” In the school setting, this can mean that whatever behavior a teacher displays toward his students will be mirrored. The saying also reinforces the need for teachers to resist the urge to engage in sarcastic comments, put-downs, or ridicule. It is critical that teachers remain professional at all times and not allow a student’s behavior to trigger a personal reaction. A “trigger” is an action, event, or thing that evokes a personal response from the teacher resulting in verbal abuse or even corporal punishment. Triggers include student behaviors such as the following:
Happily, one of the best responses to an occasional inappropriate behavior is simply using a calm voice and asking the student by name to “be nice.” This suggestion gives the student a “door to walk through,” and many students will respond by saying something like “OK, OK” and stop the inappropriate behavior.
Unfortunately, however, many urban teachers face far more serious resistance with individuals who obstruct their teaching effectiveness. To avoid responding inappropriately, they must maintain a sense of professional pride as they react. Teachers can incorporate the acronym PRIDE into their repertoire: place, refrain, ignore, dismiss, and encourage.
1. Place the behavior or action as the main focus of your response. Example: “Slamming the gymnasium door hard enough to break the hinges destroys school property and warrants a week’s suspension, Samuel.”
2. Refrain from revealing your frustration or anger. In fact, the greater the problem in the class setting, the greater the need to control your temper. When teachers react with anger to a student’s behavior, they should turn away slightly or take a step back until they are composed and in clear control of their emotions. Some teachers refrain from revealing their frustration by saying, “I see you are very frustrated, Jolene, but . . . ,” or “I can hear your anger, Jolene, but . . . ,”
or “I am not certain why you are saying that, Jolene, but . . .” followed by a description of the behavior. These responses help to defuse the teacher’s behavior and the student’s behavior in order to calm the situation.
3. Ignore the urge to yell at a student. There has never been a teacher who said, “I felt so much better after I blew up and shouted at a student.” If a teacher must confront a student who is lashing out verbally, he should proceed slowly and quietly to where the student is and put one finger to his lips as a signal for the student to listen. He should ask the student to “please stop” shouting and then walk away. It is important for the teacher to remember that the student wants attention. If the student resists, the teacher should avoid making an issue of it. Rather, he reflects on the behavior (e.g., “Cursing out a classmate, pushing, and then grabbing the ball will not be tolerated, Hosea—find a seat”) and then walks away. If any member of the class obstructs the teacher’s task, the situation must be treated calmly. The individual should be expected to either leave the class immediately (with advanced administrative approval) or preferably sit alone. At the first opportunity, the offense should be dealt with in a private conference.
4. Dismiss any thought of invading the space of a hostile student. Even touching a student’s arm, shoulder, or back can raise the student’s level of aggression and constitute a form of invasion. Student aggression is most often visible in the face, from disapproving frowns and pursed lips to sneers and full snarls. The eyes can be used to stare and hold a gaze for long time. Students may also squint, preventing the other person from seeing where they are looking. When a student is about to physically attack another student, he normally gives a visual signal such as clenching of fists ready to strike and lowering and spreading of the body for stability. He is also likely to show anger signs such as redness of the face and chin tilting. All of these gestures may be sudden, signaling a level of aggression and testing the teacher’s reactions. Avoid physical confrontations at all times.
5. Encourage respectful interactions and avoid derogatory comments, which make a teacher appear less than a trained professional of high character. In general, teachers must strive to maintain a professional relationship even if a student has just shown a crude gesture, made a barbed comment, or yelled out a personal put-down. If a teacher is not certain about how to respond to an individual’s difficult behavior, he should not do anything until he takes a moment to think. Common sense based on professional training will prevail.
Most schools offer in-service workshops focusing on class management techniques. All physical education teachers should be aware of their school’s program and preferred routines. It is imperative that all teachers be on board with the same classroom management system. In the situation in which a school does not have a formal system, teachers should ask to review the school district’s policy. All school districts in the United States are required to have a written plan, and urban schools usually have detailed plans. New York City, for example, has a 34-page document titled “Strategies for Preventing Corporal Punishment and Verbal Abuse.” This document assists with understanding of corporal punishment and teacher violations. Chicago’s school district offers its teachers a 61-page document titled “The DCPS Philosophy and Approach to Student Behavior and Discipline,” devoted to a safe and effective learning environment, and includes eight additional pages on disciplinary response to student behavior. The Washington, DC, 55-page document is called “The Student Code of Conduct.” Most school districts post their class management suggestions or guidelines on their website under the concept of student behavior, or teacher violations, or disciplinary actions.
Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/responding-to-behaviors-with-pride
El Circulo Handball
Spain
? Origin and Purpose
In 1050, French monks played jeu de paume, which meant hitting a ball with the palm of the hand. In 1861, before becoming president, Abraham Lincoln played handball in a vacant street lot near his law office. El circulo handball uses the skills of serving, volleying, smashing, and the forehand stroke to hit a tennis ball into a circular area. Partners volley the tennis ball until one student makes it impossible for the other to return the ball.
? Activity Area
? Equipment
Measuring tape, string, chalk, handballs or tennis balls
? Teaching Process
1. Partners use a measuring tape, string, and chalk to create a two-circle court with a center line located between the two circles.
2. Play begins with two students standing on opposite sides of the center line and positioned outside the circle on their side of the court—that is, student 1 stands behind circle 1, and student 2 stands behind circle 2.
3. The serving student must use an underhand serve to put the tennis ball in play.
4. When student 1 serves the ball, the ball must first bounce inside circle 2. If student 1 serves the ball and it lands inside circle 2, then student 2 must hit the ball back so it first bounces inside circle 1. The players continue to hit the ball into the opposing player’s circle. When a player fails to hit the ball so it bounces first in the other’s circle the play ends and it’s the other player’s turn to serve.
5. A student earns a point only during the play following his own serve.
6. Neither student may cross the center line to return the ball.
7. The player’s service ends after 5 serves.
8. The students must agree whether the game is to be won by the first player to reach 10, 15, or 20 points.
9. Extension: In partner el circulo handball, two teams play, each with two partners. Only one player on each team can be outside the circle at a time. The players on each team rotate in and out of the circle; the student hitting the ball must move inside the circle, and the other student moves outside the circle to make the next hit.
? Closure
Ask the students whether they were able to maintain their effort throughout the game or whether they allowed the other player or team to defeat them easily.
Scottish Clock Golf
Scotland
? Origin and Purpose
It is generally recognized that golf had its beginnings in Scotland, where shepherds hit round stones with long knotted sticks. The Scottish word goulf means to strike, and divot refers to a piece of turf. Mary, Queen of Scots, was said to be the first woman to play the game. In clock golf, students use a putting stroke similar to that in present-day golf and strive to complete a 12-hole course with the least number of putts while demonstrating patience during the wait for their next turn. With this game, minimal equipment is required to bring golf—a sport usually associated with lavish greens and ample space—to a city school.
? Activity Area
? Equipment
Four to six putter irons, four to six golf balls, 12 markers,
one tin container (e.g., an empty coffee can), pencil and paper for keeping score
? Teaching Process
1. To design the clock golf course, place 12 markers at equal distances from each other in a path forming the circumference of a complete circle that has a radius of 24 feet (7.3 m). Number each marker as for a clock, 1 through 12. Place one tin container in the middle of the circle (24 feet from each marker).
2. Students should be given instructions regarding the proper grip for the golf club. The interlocking grip is a basic grip style in which the little finger (pinkie) of one hand (the right hand for a right-handed player) is hooked around or overlaps the index finger of the other hand. This is similar to shaking hands with the club. The palms face each other. The grip should be firm but not tight, and very little or no body movement should occur with putting.
3. Students practice several times and observe each other’s putting grip for accuracy. The ball must be struck with the head of the putter, never pushed.
4. Students start from any numbered marker on the circumference of the circle and attempt to score a hole in one (i.e., get the ball into the tin cup). As many as six students at a time can be at each marker. These six students can also work with partners so that a total of 12 students can play at each clock diagram. As one student putts, the partner can keep score. A student must “hole out” (i.e., get the ball into the cup) from each marker before moving on to the next marker.
5. Scores are recorded on a sheet of paper identifying each hole and the number of shots it took for players to hole out.
6. If more than one student is playing from the same marker, they should alternate turns.
7. Field hockey sticks and balls may be substituted if golf equipment is not available. Multiple clocks can be created for greater participation.
8. The object is to be the player with the lowest score after the completion of all 12 holes.
? Closure
Ask the students if they demonstrated patience while completing their strokes and waiting their turn.
Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/examples-of-culturally-diverse-activities-and-challenges
Culturally Diverse Cooperative Challenges
International
? Origin and Purpose
This activity presents 12 culturally diverse cooperative challenges that have origins (or are very well liked) in various countries. The challenges can help students develop a sense of balance, agility, and physical conditioning within a supportive atmosphere. Students work in small or large groups to solve a common problem or goal. Individuals are responsible for following and giving directions, showing sensitivity toward their peers’ limitations, and taking part in the group decision-making process. Elements of trust should be emphasized.
? Activity Area
Small or large groups scattered throughout the activity space
? Equipment
None or very limited; see specific challenges
? Teaching Process
1. For the first six challenges, divide the students into groups of four. The remaining challenges involve larger groups.
2. Explain that the concept of teamwork has always included everyone on a team and that the 12 cooperative challenges require teamwork.
3. Circulate throughout the playing space and use a different group of students to demonstrate each of the challenges while reinforcing the cooperative aspect needed to fulfill the task.
Challenges for Groups of Four
1. Group Swedish sitting: Students form a circle, grasping wrists with their arms extended. On the count of four, they assume a squatting position and lean backward so as not to lose their balance while still maintaining grasped wrists and the circle formation.
2. Italian group tower: Students are given a piece of chalk (or tape) and use their bodies to place a chalk mark as high as possible on the side of a wall by carefully lifting and climbing on each other’s bodies.
3. Jamaican hand–foot walk: Students line up one behind the other in a push-up position. The last player in the line walks on his hands and feet (maintaining the push-up position) while moving forward to the front of the line. The player now at the end moves to the front in the same way and so on until the entire line of four players has moved at least three times to advance forward.
4. Egyptian team tagalong: The first student runs to a designated marker (a distance of 40 feet [12 m] or more) and returns to the starting line. Then the second student in line grasps the first student’s waist from behind. These two students run to the designated area and return to add a third student, who grasps the waist of the second runner. Action continues until all students in the line are holding the waist of the individual in front of them and all four students have completed the run.
5. English group balance: The four students line up and balance on one leg while holding the ankle of the person in front of them. To help with balance, the second, third, and fourth students in line rest their free hand on the shoulder of the person in front of them. Each group must coordinate a hopping movement and advance forward 15 feet (4.6 m).
6. Swiss toboggan ride: The four students sit in a line with their legs in a V shape. On the teacher’s signal, each student lifts her legs slightly off the floor so that the student in front can grab them. The group must find the best way to move a distance of 10 feet (3 m).
Challenges for Larger Groups
7. English pinball wizard: Groups of four students form a circle and grasp wrists. A fifth student stands in the middle of the small circle representing a pinball. The pinball (standing very stiffly) is carefully moved around the circle by leaning against the arms of his peers.
8. Irish group catch: Three sets of partners (six players) reach across each other to grasp interlocking hands to form a net while one student, standing straight with tightened muscles, falls slowly forward into the net of hands.
9. Greek tossing circle: This challenge uses tennis balls or small playground balls. Groups of four to six players form a circle. Each group has one ball. Slowly the students in the circle begin to move clockwise while one student tosses the ball vertically in the air to be caught by the student moving into his position. The goal is for each group to complete 8 to 10 full revolutions while moving in the circle formation without dropping the ball.
10. U.S. four by seven: Groups of seven students are asked to move 25 feet (7.6 m) across an area using only four or six points of contact with the floor. This requires the students to explore the best way to complete the task, since at least one of them will not be able to touch the floor.
11. English carousel: Groups of 10 to 12 students form a circle and grasp each other’s wrists. Students count off by 1s and 2s. Slowly, the 1s lean backward while the 2s lean forward in a balanced position.
12. Paper tag from Sweden: One student is given a long, thin strip of paper. This individual chases other class members, who flee. When a person is tagged by the chaser, the strip of paper is torn into two halves. The student who was tagged is given one of the torn halves and becomes another chaser, cooperating to tag other classmates. The activity continues until all but one student is in the role of chaser. The last person to be tagged is the winner. This person initiates the second game with a new long strip of paper.
? Closure
Ask the students why it was important to cooperate and assist each other in each of the activities.
Culturally Diverse Stretching and Exercise Challenges
International
? Origin and Purpose
Many exercise and stretching activities have evolved since the early Greek Olympics when the concept of athletic competition had its roots. In the following challenges, students participate in a variety of stretching and exercise tasks originating from culturally diverse populations.
? Activity Area
Partners and small groups scattered throughout the activity space
? Equipment
None or very limited; see specific challenges
? Teaching Process
1. For the first 10 challenges, divide the students into partners. The remaining challenges involve larger groups.
2. Explain that the term exercise refers to a series of movements or actions that are repeated for the purpose of increasing the level of a person’s physical health and for greater movement efficiency.
3. Circulate throughout the playing space and use a different set of partners to demonstrate each of the stretching and exercise challenges. Reinforce the particular health-related aspect that each exercise or stretch involves.
Challenges for Partners
1. Japanese push-ups: To perform a judo or karate push-up, the student bends his body in an upside-down V shape, with hands and feet spread apart at least 2 feet (.6 m) and knees slightly bent. He slowly rises up on the toes, bends the elbows, and while making an upward swooping motion arches the body forward with the head up and then returns to the starting position (see photos). One student performs 10 push-ups while his partner counts to 10 in Japanese. 1 = ichi (itchy); 2 = ni(knee); 3 = san (sun); 4 = shi (she); 5 = go (go); 6 = roko (rocko); 7 = shichi (shi-chi); 8 = hachi (hat-chi); 9 = kyu (coo); 10 = ju (ju).
2. African taia-ya-taia (tie-ya-tie): One partner assumes the role of a chaser. The second partner stands approximately 20 feet (6 m) away. On signal, both partners balance on one foot. The chaser’s goal is to tag his partner, who is trying to escape by hopping on one foot. Roles are exchanged after the first student is tagged. This is an excellent cardiovascular challenge when repeated several times.
3. Alaskan hands and feet race: One partner gets into push-up position, with the arms and legs straight. The objective is to move forward while maintaining this stiff push-up position with the body straight. The first partner performs the stunt for 5 feet (1.5 m) or until fatigued. The second partner begins from the spot where the first partner stopped. Partners take turns advancing forward for a total distance of 10 feet (3 m).
4. U.S. triangle stretch: Students stand approximately 4 feet (1.2 m) apart, facing their partners, and both extend their arms forward pressing palm to palm. While leaning forward, both individuals slowly step backward approximately three steps. Partners stay in this position for 5 seconds.
5. U.S. partner push-up challenge: Both students assume the push-up position, with arms bent and the chest close to the floor. One student places his feet with the toes down on his partner’s back. The student whose feet are placed on the other student’s back is in a perpendicular position to the other student. Both students push upward into a push-up position for 5 seconds. The students then exchange roles.
6. Mexican plima: This challenge uses foam balls. Partners stand 20 feet (6 m) apart facing each other. One student is given a foam ball to aim toward his partner. The objective is for the partner to avoid being touched by a rolled, tossed, or thrown ball by dodging, ducking, or leaping into the air. Partners exchange roles after five throws.
7. Peru clock skipping game: This challenge uses a 16-foot (5 m) jump rope. Two students begin the activity by swinging the rope. Other sets of partners, standing side by side, form a line facing the rope. The first set of partners runs under the rope for zero, the second set jumps once, the third set jumps twice, and so on, until 12 jumps have been completed. If any set of partners misses a jump or trips on the rope, the game starts over at zero.
8. Swedish sawing wood: Partners stand facing each other on any line marked on the floor. Their knees are slightly bent and their feet point toward each other. On the teacher’s signal, they interlock fingers and raise their hands to chest height. Still straddling the line, they pump their arms back and forth to imitate the action of sawing wood. The object is to remain on the line while doing the sawing motion.
9. German handshake: Partners are face-to-face in the push-up start position. They are challenged to perform one push-up. After each push-up, they lift one hand and perform a handshake, then repeat. The point is to see how many handshakes they can perform before tiring.
10. U.S. multiplicity stretches: Open-ended questions or suggestions prompt partners to perform an exercise in any way they choose, and the results can be endless. For example, the teacher might challenge them to perform an exercise while bending at the waist; they might respond by touching their toes, doing a sit-up, or executing side stretches. These are examples of other questions or instructions:
Challenges for Groups of 8 to 12
11. Greek group push-ups: This challenge uses tennis balls or small playground balls. Divide the students into groups of 8 to 10.Each group forms a line, with the students standing shoulder to shoulder, and everyone assumes a push-up position. The first student in the line stands and rolls a ball under the others. That student immediately drops to a push-up position. The last person in line jumps up and stands waiting for the ball. As soon as it is retrieved, the player runs to the front of the line and rolls the ball. He or she then drops down into the push-up position at the front of the line, while the last person in the back stands up to catch the rolling ball. The action is repeated with the next person at the front of the line. Individuals in the push-up position can lower their bodies to rest while the last person with the ball is running to the front.
12. Chinese rope kicking: This challenge uses long jump ropes. Organize the students into groups of 8 to 12. One set of partners holds a long jump rope (12-16 feet or 3.7-5 m) so that it is 3 to 4 feet (.9 to 1.2 m) above the ground. All other students stand in a line facing the rope. The first student approaches the rope head-on and raises one leg to tap it with a single foot. After all students have had one turn, the rope is raised 3 inches (7.6 cm) higher. Individuals continue to take turns to discover how high the rope can be raised before they can no longer swing one leg up and make contact with it. Whenever this happens or when a student approaches the rope and chooses not to try, he simply bows to the rope and steps aside until one student remains who can jump up and make a successful tap.
? Closure
Reinforce that one goal of a high-quality physical education program is for students to participate regularly in physical activity. Ask the students if they believe the notion that stretching and exercise are desired goals of people throughout the world and not just professional athletes.
Culturally Diverse Fitness Challenges
International
? Origin and Purpose
Forms of physical activity challenges have existed in all cultures as a way to condition the body for greater health and physical ability. Abraham Lincoln was a wrestler before he became the president of the United States. The Asian culture used combative challenges in their martial arts training. In these culturally diverse fitness challenges, partners and small groups are asked to perform tasks involving pushing, pulling, reaction time, and strength. The word challenge originated in 14th-century English, meaning “inviting to a contest.”
? Activity Area
Partners scattered throughout the activity space
? Equipment
None or very limited; see specific challenges
? Teaching Process
1. Explain that partners will challenge each other’s fitness level by performing tasks involving pushing, pulling, reaction time, and strength.
2. Begin the activities by having each student select a partner of similar height and body type.
3. For each activity, ask one set of partners to demonstrate the activity and then have all other partners repeat the challenge.
4. Handshakes should precede each challenge.
5. Whenever possible, reinforce the definition of the given fitness element (e.g., “The first set of challenges focuses on pushing. When we push something, we are moving something away by pressing or exerting force against it”).
Challenges Involving Pushing
Push: to move something away by pressing or exerting force against it.
1. German bulldozer: Partners stand facing each other with their left shoulders touching (see photo). On the teacher’s signal, each attempts to push the other in such a way that she steps backward.
2. Chinese hawk: Partners each raise their left foot and grasp it from behind with their left hand to hop on one leg. The right arm remains free but is bent at the elbow and placed behind the back. On the teacher’s signal, partners enter a 6-foot (1.8 m) circle, shake hands, and begin the challenge. The object is for each partner to use her shoulder to push the other outside the circle or to force the individual to take a step.
3. Luto de galo (loo-tah day gahlo): This challenge uses handkerchiefs or strips of paper. In this game, which is played in Brazil and Portugal, partners try to snatch a handkerchief (a rooster’s tail) from the opponent’s back pocket using only one hand while hopping on one foot. Players defend their rooster tail by dodging and twisting.
Challenges Involving Pulling
Pull: to move apart by exerting force.
4. American Indian standing hand wrestle: Partners stand facing each other with their right feet touching and their right hands clasped. On the teacher’s signal, they attempt to pull each other forward until one causes the other to lift her back foot.
Challenges Involving Reaction Time
Reaction time: the ability to respond quickly and accurately.
5. Japanese knee touch: Partners start by facing each other and attempt to touch or tap each other’s knee before their own knee is tapped three times.
6. Spanish foot tag: Partners attempt to use their feet to touch the feet of the other person before their own feet are touched three times.
7. German push-up breakdown: Partners are face-to-face in a push-up position. The object is to cause the other person to break down by grasping the partner’s arm in such a way that she cannot maintain the push-up position.
8. English hot hands: Partners stand facing each other. One student places her hands out in front of her body (palms facing downward). The other student places her hands behind her back. This student attempts to bring her hands around her body and slap her partner’s hands. The student with her hands outstretched tries to pull them away before her partner can slap them. Each student has three attempts before the roles change.
Challenges Involving Strength
Strength: to exert force for an extended time.
9. American Indian leg wrestling: Partners lie on a mat side by side with their feet in opposite directions. Their right hips should be aligned. Partners interlock right arms. On the teacher’s signal, the students raise their right legs until their toes touch. On a second signal, the action is repeated. On the third signal, the students hook legs and try to roll their partner over to their own side of the mat.
10. English dragon’s lair: Use chalk or tape to mark a 5-foot (1.5 m) circle on the floor. The circle represents the dragon’s lair. Partners stand on opposite sides of the lair. On signal, the players run around the circle, meet, and have 30 seconds to try to pull or push the other into the dragon’s lair without having their own body enter the circle.
11. Greek flip the turtle: One partner lies facedown with legs and arms stretched outward in a large, wide shape to form a turtle (see photo). The second player has 30 seconds to try to move or flip the turtle onto her back.
12. Egyptian tug-of-war: Begin by having four players shake hands. Two players form a rope by having one player clasp his or her arms around the other’s waist. The other set of players face the first set and do the same. The inside players grab hands while straddling a line on the floor. On the teacher’s signal, both sets of partners try to pull the other team over the line.
? Closure
Ask the students which of the activities presented the greatest challenge given their current level of fitness.
Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/culturally-diverse-challenges-offer-a-supportive-atmosphere
Blood Pressure Responses to Exercise
In the transition from rest to exercise, systolic blood pressure initially rises rapidly, then levels off once steady state is attained (1, 3). Typical systolic pressures during submaximal exercise range from 140 to 160 mmHg. Graded dynamic exercise normally produces a progressive increase in systolic pressure, and values can reach as high as 250 mmHg during maximal exercise.
Figure 4.1 shows systolic and diastolic blood pressure responses to exercise of increasing intensity. The rise in systolic pressure reflects the increased force of contraction of the ventricles in order to increase cardiac output from sympathetic stimulation. Diastolic pressure may show either no change or a very slight increase or decrease during graded exercise due to a redistribution of blood flow to the capillary beds in the large exercising muscle groups (1, 3).
Following heavy exercise, systolic blood pressure drops rapidly. This rapid drop (hypotension) results from pooling of blood in vessels that were dilated during the heavy exercise. The pooling reduces venous return and thus decreases cardiac output. If the reduction in CO is severe enough, the subject or athlete may experience light-headedness due to insufficient blood flow to the brain. For this reason, a cool-down period is recommended following intense exercise in order to maintain HR and SV and allow the cardiovascular system to readjust gradually.
BP responds differently during isometric exercise (or slow concentric actions). Sustained muscle actions that occlude blood flow can increase resistance tremendously and can result in extremely high systolic and diastolic BP. Thus, even though muscle is contracting and in need of blood flow, continuous muscular contraction surrounding the blood vessels can significantly increase resistance and decrease flow. In an effort to overcome this occlusion, the heart increases pressure.
Accurate Blood Pressure Checks
Measuring blood pressure is a basic skill in exercise physiology since it provides a good indication of the work of the heart; as a result, this skill is critical for properly prescribing exercise for at-risk individuals. Indirect measurement of blood pressure is done with a stethoscope and a sphygmomanometer. The indirect measurement of blood pressure monitors the sounds of blood flow in the brachial artery (Korotkoff phases) that are audible through the stethoscope (for more information about the Korotkoff phases, see the accompanying highlight box). Laminar blood flow makes little or no sound in the arteries, whereas turbulent blood flow due to occlusion from the blood pressure cuff can make a variety of sounds. Although blood pressure can differ slightly in the left and right arms, the difference is minimal; for the purposes of skill acquisition in this lab, students should use the most convenient arm. Note, however, that in clinical assessment both arms should be measured, and the highest recording should be used as the BP measurement (2). When doing serial measurements, the same arm should be used. The arm should be as free of clothing as possible, since clothing can muffle sounds during auscultation; however, simply rolling up or bunching a sleeve can, if done too tightly, mimic a BP cuff and thus occlude blood flow. Different-size cuffs are available for use with different-size arms; specifically, cuffs are available for children, adults, and large adults. Index lines on the cuff should indicate whether the cuff is appropriate for a given subject or patient. The bladder should cover about 80% of the arm to enable it to occlude blood flow effectively when inflated.
BP measurement can be affected by the testing situation and by preparation. Ideally, subjects refrain from using stimulants such as caffeine prior to testing. They should wear loose clothing, be normally hydrated, and avoid strenuous exercise for several hours prior to the test. While being tested, they should not cross their legs, and they should avoid any form of isometric muscle action, such as pressing down on their legs, dangling their feet off the ground, or sitting erect with the back unsupported. In addition, the environment should be free of stimuli such as loud music or unnecessary activity (2).
References
1. Brooks GA, Fahey TD, and Baldwin KM. Exercise Physiology: Human Bioenergetics and Its Applications. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005.
2. Kenney WL, Wilmore JH, and Costill DL. Physiology of Sport and Exercise. 5th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2012.
3. Perloff D, Grim C, Flack J, Frohlich ED, Hill M, McDonald M, and Morgenstern BZ. Human Blood Pressure Determination by Sphygmomanometry. Circulation 88: 2460–2470, 1993.
Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/accurate-blood-pressure-measurement-critical-to-exercise-prescription
Misconceptions abound about our breathing, or ventilation (VE). Of course, ventilation is necessary for the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and our metabolism. We use oxygen (O2) from the atmosphere as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain. We must also expire carbon dioxide (CO2), since this carbon is the result of macronutrient combustion (refer to lab 5). During exercise, O2 consumption and CO2production increase; therefore, we need to increase our ventilation. As you learned in labs 9 and 10, we ventilate much more at higher workloads above the ventilatory threshold. This is the result of greater CO2production at higher intensities from the buffering of lactate (see labs 9 and 10), or in other words, respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis. Thus our lungs act to regulate acid-base balance.
At normal altitudes, our ventilation is more sensitive to the production of CO2 than it is to the consumption of O2. Very small increases in PCO2 results in a proportional increase in V.E, whereas PO2 can decrease significantly with little effect on the stimulation of VE(see figure 13.1, a and b). At high altitudes ( 2,000 m or 6,500 ft), the reduced partial pressure of O2 (which can lead to hypoxia) is capable of stimulating greater amounts of ventilation. Not only do changes in CO2 and O2stimulate us to breathe differently; we also have voluntary control over our breathing.
The increased need for ventilation during exercise as the result of increased CO2 production and O2consumption leads us as exercise physiologists to be interested in its measurement. We move atmospheric gases into our lungs by creating negative pressures in our thoracic cavity.
This is accomplished by the skeletal muscles of inspiration (diaphragm, intercostals) and expiration (intercostals, abdominals), which change the volume within the thoracic cavity—the greater the change in volume, the bigger our breath, or tidal volume (VT). Ventilation is, therefore, a function of breathing frequency (bf) multiplied by tidal volume (VT):
VE(L · min-1) = bf (b · min-1) X VT(L · b-1)
Tidal volume is one of the measurements made during spirometry. Ventilation can be divided into distinct volumes and capacities, as seen in figure 13.2.
Pulmonary Function Testing
A pulmonary function test (PFT) can measure the amount (volume) and speed (flow rate) of inspiration and expiration. PFTs can be used to identify the health and capacity of the pulmonary system. Most PFTs can measure tidal volume (VT), as well as the following:
Lung volumes are largely a function of age, height, and sex. Physical fitness does not significantly affect lung size per se, but it may improve measurement of flow rates, though this idea may be challenged by some evidence concerning swimmers (4, 22).
Volumes for PFT results are usually expressed in terms of BTPS (body temperature and pressure, saturated). You may recall that volumes of gases are dependent on the temperature, barometric pressure, and level of humidity, or water saturation. As a result, expression of gas volumes needs to have a systematic unit of expression. Since the air in our lungs is at body temperature, ambient pressure, and nearly 100% humidity, the units of BTPS are common for PFT results. However, as you exhale air and it cools to the temperature of the room and loses humidity or condenses, its volume changes. Thus, it may be necessary to convert from ambient (or room) temperature, ambient pressure, saturated (ATPS). Your laboratory instructor can indicate whether this is necessary. The equation for converting ATPS to BTPS is as follows (where VATPS = volume of gas at ATPS, TA= temperature in your lab, PB= barometric pressure in your lab, and PH2O= water vapor pressure at the TA):
VBTPS = VATPS X [310 / (273 + TA)] X [(PB - PH2O) / (PB - 47)]
PFT as a Tool for Diagnosing Pulmonary Disease
PFT results can be used in diagnoses of respiratory diseases, which are categorized into two different types (based on PFT results): obstructive and restrictive.
An obstructive diseaseis characterized by an acute or chronic obstruction in the bronchi leading to the alveoli. These obstructions are often referred to as chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPDs). Individuals with these diseases usually have normal lung volumes but restricted flow rates. COPDs can be diagnosed by testing the FEV1.0, FEV1.0/FVC ratio, PEF, or other flow rate measures. Examples of COPDs include asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. Asthma differs from the other two in that it can be temporary and reversible. Exercise-induced asthma is a temporary inflammatory response during exercise that obstructs ventilatory flow rates. Exercise-induced asthmatics may have normal flow rates at rest but produce a positive test (i.e., a 15% decrease from pre-exercise measured FEV1.0) following 6 to 8 min of vigorous exercise at a target intensity of 85% to 90% of maximum heart rate.
A restrictive disease is characterized by reduced total lung capacities or volumes, such as TLC or vital capacity (VC), but the individual may have normal flow rates. Restrictive diseases can be diagnosed by measuring FVC or a slow VC. Examples of restrictive diseases include pulmonary fibrosis, scar tissue, and tumors.
Pulmonary Disease Classifications
For both obstructive and restrictive pulmonary diseases, PFT results are classified by the following comparisons with predicted results (for restrictive diseases, FVC is comparison; for COPDs, % predicted is for FEV1.0) (23):
Good: 100% of predicted
Normal: 100% to 80% of predicted
Mild: 80% to 65% of predicted
Moderate: 65% to 50% of predicted
Moderately severe: 50% to 35% of predicted
Severe:
Individuals with pulmonary disease have increased work of breathing and, if severe enough, limited O2 delivery to working tissues, including the brain. Under these circumstances, exercise is extremely uncomfortable, and supplemental oxygen may be necessary for activities of daily living. Despite the discomfort of exercise for these individuals, it can alleviate many of their symptoms. For further information on pulmonary rehabilitation, refer to reference sources 10, 11, 27, as well as the following sources from Human Kinetics: 1, 3, 18, 19.
Selected References
1. American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation. Guidelines for Pulmonary Rehabilitation Programs. 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2011.
3. Babcock MA, Pegelow DF, Harms CA, and Dempsey JA. Effects of Respiratory Muscle Unloading on Exercise-Induced Diaphragm Fatigue. J Appl Physiol 93: 201–206, 2002.
4. Black LF, Offord K, and Hyatt RE. Variability in the Maximal Expiratory Flow Volume Curve in Asymptomatic Smokers and in Nonsmokers. Am Rev Respir Dis 110: 282–292, 1974.
10. Ferreira SA, Guimaraes M, and Taveira N. Pulmonary Rehabilitation in COPD: From Exercise Training to “Real Life.” J Bras Pneumol 35: 1112–1115, 2009.
11. Ghanem M, Elaal EA, Mehany M, and Tolba K. Home-Based Pulmonary Rehabilitation Program: Effect on Exercise Tolerance and Quality of Life in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Patients. Ann Thorac Med 5: 18–25, 2010.
18. Jobin J, Maltais F, LeBlanc P, and Simard C. Advances in Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2000.
19. Jobin J, Maltais F, Poirier P, LeBlanc PJ, and Simard C. Advancing the Frontiers of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2002.
22. Mickleborough TD, Stager JM, Chatham K, Lindley MR, and Ionescu AA. Pulmonary Adaptations to Swim and Inspiratory Muscle Training. Eur J Appl Physiol 103: 635–646, 2008.
Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/pulmonary-function-testing-a-valuable-diagnostic-tool
When you’ve exercised hard and feel stiff, sore, and tired, you may wonder, If I were to eat better, would I recover faster? Without a doubt, consuming the appropriate foods and fluids can affect your recovery (as can doing light exercise for 10 to 20 minutes while you are cooling down to assist with removal of lactic acid from the blood and muscles). Many of my clients have questions about their recovery diets:
When you deal with the rigors of a tough training schedule, remember that what you eat after a hard workout or competition affects your recovery. For the serious athlete, foods eaten after exercise require the same careful selection as the meal before exercise. You should not separate your recovery diet from your daily diet. By wisely choosing your foods and fluids both right after you finish exercising and throughout the day, you will recover as best as you possibly can for the next workout.
If you are a recreational exerciser who works out three or four times per week, you need not worry about your recovery diet because you have enough time to refuel your muscle glycogen stores before your next workout. But you should be concerned about your recovery diet if you are a competitive athlete who does two or more workouts per day, such as a soccer player at training camp who practices morning and afternoon, a competitive swimmer who competes in multiple events per meet, a triathlete who trains twice per day, an aerobics instructor who teaches several classes daily, or a basketball player who needs to endure an entire season of intense training and competing. To recover and refuel for the next bout, you should pay particular attention to what you eat right after the first session.
Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/learn-to-refuel-and-recover-quickly
January 25, 2012
The 2012 Power 100 ranking of the most powerful athletes in sports (created by Bloomberg Businessweek and Horrow Sports Ventures) was just released. What’s interesting is that athletes used to be measured more by their performance on the field than in business. Today, that is no longer the case. In order to be deemed successful, athletes not only have to perform well, they also must have a certain rapport with the public. This Power list looks at athlete’s performance both on-and off-the field. For an inside look at the multibillion-dollar world of professional sport, pick up a copy of Beyond The Scoreboard by Rick Horrow, America’s leading expert in sport business, and coauthor Karla Swatek and check out the Inside Sports Business web site and app!
Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/the-most-powerful-athletes-in-sports-
Champaign, IL—No two people are exactly alike. And, according to Ingrid Yang, coauthor of the forthcoming Hatha Yoga Asanas: Pocket Guide for Personal Practice (Human Kinetics, 2012), the ability to modify postures to meet individual abilities is what sets yoga apart from other physical activities. “Being flexible enough to plant your forehead on your shins, sit in lotus, or wrap your legs behind your head is not indicative of good yoga practice,” Yang explains. “Instead, a sense of calm, contentment, and focus in each pose is the true foundation of yoga practice.”
According to Yang, to fully experience the benefits of yoga, practitioners must listen to their bodies and breathe, regardless of level of ability. “As with any physical activity, improvement comes with practice,” Yang says. “Range of motion, mental alertness, strength, stamina, and focus will all improve with regular and dedicated practice.”
She stresses that yoga is a practice and not a science or strict regimen. “There is no finish line or complete product,” Yang explains. “It is simply the daily practice of awakening to each moment and discovering what comes up.”
In Hatha Yoga Asanas: Pocket Guide for Personal Practice, Yang and coauthor Daniel DiTuro have designed an accessible reference of more than 150 classic hatha yoga asanas depicted by four-color photographs. Each pose is identified in both English and Sanskrit and is accompanied by short and simple steps for performing the movements. The asanas range from gentle yoga for beginners to more advanced forms and cover a variety of hatha yoga styles, including ashtanga, vinyasa, and iyengar.
Yang believes hatha yoga helps to unify people regardless of shapes and constitutions. “Humans share the link of humanity and collective yearning to discover the truth within themselves,” Yang says. “That truth can be uncovered through the practice of hatha yoga, because how you relate to your inner self can be revealed through outer expression.”
For more information, see Hatha Yoga Asanas: Pocket Guide for Personal Practice.
Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/why-flexibility-is-not-indicative-of-good-yoga-practice
Author: Jim Schmutz, ASEP Executive Director
The new fourth edition of Successful Coaching, written by ASEP founder Rainer Martens, and the updated and enhanced Coaching Principles course will be released May 2012. Once again available in both classroom and online formats, Coaching Principles represents the most comprehensive coaching education course available today to certify high school coaches. A new feature of the new edition is the option to receive the Successful Coaching text as an eBook.
More than 30 years ago, a foursome of scholars, researchers, and practitioners in the emerging fields of sport and exercise science and sport medicine set their sights on educating coaches. Sport psychologist Rainer Martens, sport physiologist Brian Sharkey, sport pedagogy specialist and coach Bob Christina, and sports medicine specialist John Harvey joined ranks in an attempt to provide youth sport coaches a very readable and useful book to fulfill their role more effectively. The result, Coaching Young Athletes, was published 1981 and served as the text for the first American Coaching Effectiveness Program (ACEP) course introduced that same year.
Feedback from athletic administrators, program coordinators, and coaches themselves over the years, and increased demand encouraged major enhancements of the book and the Coaching Principles course. In the third edition, the page count expanded to a whopping 520 pages, and the book’s interior was visually upgraded with appealing full-color artwork and photography presented throughout. America’s most authoritative coaching guide became an even more complete source of information. The book bears no resemblance to the far more basic and much shorter Coaching Young Athletes that preceded it by more than two decades. In fact, over 200 colleges and universities across the country use Successful Coaching as part of curriculum dedicated to coach education and athletic leadership.
Now, here we are, eight years later and completing yet another edition of Successful Coaching, to continue our ongoing commitment to upgrade the book and Coaching Principles course. Given the high regard for the third edition and the more than 500,000 copies sold in its previous versions, be assured that all the best features have been retained. The content will still focus on the key principles of coaching that are at ASEP’s core. Also, the visual presentation will be more attractive than its eye-pleasing predecessor. But changes will be noteworthy, all designed to make reading, retaining, and referencing back to material even easier. We have also been able to reduce the page count to less than 480 pages.
Equally important is the revision of Coaching Principles, which was given much thought and attention. We compiled and took into consideration extensive input and feedback from coaches, coaching educators, sport administrators, ASEP instructors, and sport organizations. As a result, the classroom course outline has been consolidated in to seven units, while the online course is presented in 20 units designed to correspond with the book chapters. Classroom instructors will find preparation easier and presentation more stimulating with the new format and interactive exercises. Coaches will find the classroom presentation even more compelling and practical. The classroom and online versions of the course will include new video presentations which will feature the use of “Master Coaches,” who will share years of practical experience and provide insight on critical elements related to being a success coach.
Coaching Principles will also introduce a number of new interactive exercises including the Developmental Dozen which provides coaches with 12 goals focused on coach development and designed to prepare coaches for the demands that they will face in developing athletes. At the conclusion of each unit, coaches will be encouraged to compile notes related to each of the 12 goals associated with the unit.
Instructors and coaches will benefit from the increased use of technology with the fourth edition of the book and course. Higher education instructors who adopt Successful Coaching will have access to an upgraded set of ancillary materials available online. In keeping pace with the increasing demand for digital products, Successful Coaching will be available as an eBook and coaches will be able to purchase the course with eBook version. Classroom instructors will be provided with updated instructor materials including the instructor guide, classroom workbook for coaches along with the hard copy and eBook versions of Successful Coaching. Those coaches taking the classroom course will have the standard hard copy classroom workbook to complete the exercises during the class but will also have access to an online component that will support preparation for coaching and completing the course. All evaluations will be completed online. And while paper tests will remain available, ASEP will encourage coaches to take their test online.
ASEP eagerly anticipates releasing these revised products in mid-May 2012. If you have any questions, please contact me at JamesS@hkusa.com.
Article source: http://www.humankinetics.com/news-and-excerpts/news-and-excerpts/new-editions-of-successful-coaching-and-coaching-principles-available-may-2012
